JK 251 
.C48 



iGTICE. 






LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



®{pji Qop^rtglt !f 0. 

Shell 1/ 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 






' The Powers That Be. " 



Givil Government in Tfeeory and 
Practice. 



BY W. I. CHASE. 



A COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF EXISTING GOVERNMENTS, 

THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, AND CHIEF POINTS 

OF LIKENESS AND UNLIKENESS TO THE 

GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED 

STATES. 



^repccred foT Use trc ScTtools. 



Chicago: 
W. I. CHASE, 
School Herald Office, 

1885. ^:^:;, 



6 1 



-\(% 



Entered according- to act of congress, in the year 18S5, 
By W. I. CHASE, 

In the office of the librarian of congress, at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



When in the course of human events it becomes 
necessary to preface a book with a statement of its 
purpose, and the motives which led to its composition, 
first by the author and afterwards by the printer, the 
author should not, I think, be put too strictly upon 
his honor to tell the truth, the whole truth and noth- 
ing but the truth. That an author writes for his 
own pecuniary profit, no one in this age is disposed 
to deny, but the reasons which induced him to treat 
of this rather than that — to choose (with Mr. Wop- 
sle) pork, rather than pickles as the text of his dis- 
course, are manifold. Perhaps as plausible a state- 
ment as any would, in eight cases out of ten, be this: 
" The following facts were brought my attention. 
I found them interesting to me, and fancied they 
might be of interest to others. Hence I accumulated 
them." 

As to the utility of the book, I hope it may be 
studied by every class in civil government, and be- 
lieve that enlarging the scope of the study will not 
only not interfere with the consideration of our state 



PREFACE. 



and federal constitutions, but will add to the pupil's 
understanding and appreciation of the methods and 
purpose of our government of the people, by the 
people and for the people. 



W. I. CHASE. 



Office School Herald, 
Chica^^o, III. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Part I. — Introductory. 

Page. 
Origin and Forms of Civil Government 9-1 S 

Part 2. — Sovereign States. 

Chapter I. Forms of Government 19-22 

Chapter II. Tlie United States of America. 22-2S 

Chapter III. The United States of Mexico 29-33 

Chapter IV. Venezuela and Colombia... 33-37 

Chapter V. Argentine Confederation and Liberia 3S-42 

Chapter VI. Switzerland and Germany 4--49 

Chapter VII Austria-Hungary, and Sweden and 

Norway 49-54 

Chapter VIII. France and England ._ 54-6i 

Chapter IX. Chili, Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador 61-6S 

Chapter X. Central America. 6S-73 

Chapter XI. Paraguay, Uruguay, and the West India 

Republics ... 73-78 

Chapter XII. Orange Free State, San Marino, An- 

dorra, Belgium and Brazil 79-S5 

Chapter XIII. Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands and 

Denmark 85-91 

Chapter XIV. Italy, Greece and the Slavonic King- 
doms - _ 91-96 

Chapter XV. Montenegro, Russia and Islam ..97-104 

Chapter XVI. China, Japan and Siam 104-108 

Chapter XVII. Minor States 109-112 



viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Part 3. — Dependent and Component States. 

Chapter XVIII. Tunis, Egypt, Bulgaria and the 

Transvaal.. 11 3-1 18 

Chapter XIX. Autonomous Colonial Dependencies. 1 18-127 

Chapter XX. Component States 127-132 

Chapter XXI. State Governments 133 

Part 4. — Review of Governments. 

Chapter XXII. Blackboard Exercises. 148 

Chapter XXIII. The Government of the United States 

compared with those of other coun ries._ 156 

Chapter XXIV. Rulers of the World 166 



THE POWERS THAT BE 



A. Comparative Gtudy of the Theory and Practice of 
Civil Government. 

PART I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

I. Definition. — The word government, as com- 
mor.ly u^ed, has several shades of meaning. As the 
substantive of the verb to govern, it means the act of 
governing, as the government of a people by a ruler. 
In considering the way in which the act of governing 
is habitually performed, we use the word government to 
signify themode of governing, as when we speak of forms 
of government, a republican government, etc. By me- 
tonomy, also, we use the word to denote (i) the person 
or persons authorized to govern, and (2) the nation 
itself, including both rulers and ruled. Thus we speak 
(i) of persons rebelling against the government or of 
the government and the opposition, and (2) of the 
European governments, /. e. the powers, — the nations 
themselves, including their rulers. 

Before speaking of the existing forms of government, 
we will consider (i) the origin, and (2) purpose of gov- 

I. Define the word government Give example of the use of the word in each 
of its senses. 



\ 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

ernment, and (3) the causes which create differences 
in its form. 

2. Origin or Basis. — The origin of government 
was, undoubtedly, the power of the ruler to maintain 
authority, and this may be considered the basis of 
government at the present time; but since mankind 
do not differ widely in strength, no ruler can long main- 
tain himself in power without the consent of at least 
a portion of his sul jects, The will of the people may 
be reckoned a necessary element of their ruler's power 
to govern, but it is not accurate to say that the right to 
govern depends on the consent of the governed. For 
if the people are careless or indolent, not knowing what 
they want, or lacking in energy to enforce their de- 
mands, the force of the ruler will overpower their 
feeble resistance, and they will be practically slaves by 
what we call their passive consent, however they may 
murmur against their enslaveirient. 

3. Object or Purpose. — The object of government, 
apart from the glorification of the ruler, is, first, the 
establishment and administration of law. The main- 
tenance of the various personal and property rights of 
individuals demands that each disputed case shall be 
adjusted according to fixed principles, which apply to 
all cases alike. These principles are formulated into 
laws. To enatt these laws and see to their execution 
is the first recognized object of government. But be- 
side the maintenance of social order, a government is 
necessary to a nation to attend to its relations with 
other countries, and to provide for its defense in case 
of war. 

4. Cause of Variations in Form. — The two 
forces which directly shape the form of government 

2. Upon what is all government based ? How far is the consent of the gov- 
erned essential ? 

3. What are the recognized purposes of a system of government? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. ii 

are the wisdom or caprice of the governing power and 
the consent of the governed. Indirectly so many 
elements enter into the formation of a system of gov- 
ernment that it has been questioned whether forms of 
government were really a matter of choice, — whether 
the " powers that be" were not really ''ordained of 
God" in the sense that all growths are ordered by 
Him. Whether, indeed, systems of governmeat do not 
grow up, ada[)ting themselves to the natures, wants, 
and circumstances of a people, so that changes of the 
form of government are not merely dangerous experi- 
ments, but self-evident blunders. 

To a certain extent it is, of course, true that the 
form of government is adapted to the people, but when 
by enlightenment or deterioration the wishes of the 
people with regard to their form of government change, 
an alteration of that form becomes practicable. Thus 
when the Jews wearied of the government of judges 
they demanded a king, to go before them to battle, and 
Samuel, warning them of the probable consequence ot 
the change, anointed Saul. I'he Romans banished 
their royal family and established a government by 
consuls-. France has three times banished her mon- 
arch and established a republic. The difficulty with 
which this was done shows the desirability of adapting 
the government to the customs and traditions of the 
people, but the success of the third French republic 
proves that it is possible to m.ake a radical change in 
the government of a nation, if the new one is tried 
long enough to engage the allegiance of the people. 

Political institutions are t. e work of men, and are 
altered or amended by men, and hence, are well or ill 
made according as judgment and skill have, or have 
not, been used in their production. But, on the other 
hand, political institutions are not only made but they 
must be conducted and sustained by men. The people 



12 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

may be averse to a form of government or they maybe 
simply unwilling to take the trouble to maintain it after 
they have chosen it. 

"Thus," remarks John Stuart Mill, "a people may 
prefer a free government, but, if, from indolence, or 
carelessness, or cowardice, or want of public spirit, they 
are unequal to the exertions necesssry for preserving 
it; if they will not fight for it when it is directly attack- 
ed ; if they can be deluded by the artifices used to 
cheat them out of it ; if by momentary discouragement 
or a fit oi enthusiasm for an individual, they can be in- 
duced tD lay their liberties at the feet even of a great 
man, or trust him with powers which enable him to 
subvert their institutions; in all these cases they are 
more or less unfit for liberty ; and though it may be for 
their good io have had it, even for a short time, they 
are unlikely to long enjoy it." 

Further, he notes, that when the people are too im- 
pulsive or self-willed to endure the restraints and await 
the action of the laws, or when they side with the 
criminal as against the authorities, they are in a meas- 
ure unfit for free government; or when being entrusted 
with the suffrage, they sell their votes or cast them 
from corrupt or partisan motives, they are in danger of 
being cheated out of their liberties. 

But though the general character of the government 
depends much upon the temper of the people, its de- 
tails are usually invented by the rulers,or adapted from 
the institutions of other nations. 

5. Forms of Civil Government. — Civil govern- 
ment — civil from cim's, a state — means the government 
of a state in its normal peaceful condition, as opposed 
to the more desp. tic mode in which an army is ruled. 

4. What two forces directly shape the -^rm of government? What is said ol 
the growth of political systems? How far are these systems a matter of choice ? 
Why must these be adapted to the nature and habits of the people I What 
dangers threaten the liberties of a people 1 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 13 

Forms of government are usually classified as mon- 
archical, aristocratic, or democratic. Two other forms 
are sometimes given, namely, patriarchal and theo- 
cratic, but these are now obsolete, if, indeed, they ever 
existed as forms of state government. We should, 
however, remember that this classification of govern- 
ments is highly arbitrary, and we must expect to find 
as distinct differences between members of a class as 
between'the chisses themselves. It is much as if we 
classified animals by their colors. We might better 
use the terms monarchy, aristocracy and democracy to 
signify qualities rather than generic distmctions, and 
so doing we shall find use for a fourth class — bureau- 
cracy. 

6. Definition of Terms. — Monarchy, pure and 
simple, means government by a single ruler, whether 
he be styled king, prince, emperor, pope, sultan, pasha, 
or bey, or simply dictator pro tempore ; whether he ob- 
tained his place by inheritance, election or appointment; 
whether his government professes to be legal or arbi- 
trary, so long as he singly discharges the functions of 
government, he is a monarch. An aristocracy signifies 
a government by a class neither elected nor appointed; 
it is usually understood to imply a titled or hereditary 
nobility, but a high educational or property qualifica- 
tion for the suffrage would create an aristocracy fully 
entitled to the term. Democracy implies a govern- 
ment by the people — not necessarily directly, which is 
possible only in small colonies or towns. An absolute 
democracy means a government by the untrammeled 
will of the majority. A bureaucracy denotes a govern- 
ment by an appointed class. It is found in its purest 



5. What is civil government? What is the usual classification of forms ol 
civil government ? Do these terms denote different kinds of government, or 
different features of similar forms ? 

6. What is a monarchy? Define aristocracy, democracy, bureaucracy. 



14 . CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

state in the government of colonies and provinces, and 
forms an important element in all governments. 

7. Purity and Extent. — The kinds (or qualities) 
of government are monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, 
and bureaucracy. These are to be reckoned pure or 
impure according as they exist separately or inter- 
mingled one with another, and absolute or limited ac- 
cording to the degrees of power they wield. 

8. Limitations of Power. — Governmental powers 
are limited in one or both of two ways : by the estab- 
lishment of a fundamental or organic law; i,e.^ a consti- 
tution, or by the division ot powers. As to constitu- 
tions, there are various modes of framing, establish- 
ing, and altering or amending them, but, however 
framed, they are checks upon the discretionary power 
of the government, and are usually the result of com- 
promise between governor and governed. Divisions of 
power are made (i) horizontally ( as we may say) in 
forming local and general governments, and (2) verti- 
cally, by the classification of co-ordinate powers, 

9. Co-ordinate Powers. — Theoretically, three di- 
visions are made of the powers of government, though in 
practice the distinctions are by no means always observ- 
ed. These are the lawmaking,or legislative, the law inter- 
preting and applying, or judicial, and the law execu- 
ting, or executive, powers of government. Under free 
governments, these powers are usually entrusted to 
different departments, and this division of power is 
often insisted upon as necessary to liberty and good 
government. The Massachusetts bill of rights ex- 
pressly forbids the wielding of powers belonging to 
one department by persons in charge of another 
department, and gives, as a reason, " that this may be 

7. As applied to political forms, what does purity signify? What extent? 

8. How are the powers of government usually limited? How may the powers 
of government be limited by division t 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 15 

a government of laws and not of men." But, in prac- 
tice, it is found necessary to leave a large share of the 
law applying power in the hands of the executive, to 
make the executive officers who enforce the decision of 
the courts, answerable to the courts themselves, and to 
k. the legislature share a portion of the responsibility. 
This inconsistency to the letter is really consistent with 
Vhe spirit of the theory of separate responsibiUties, for 
by it each department is made, in a measure, independ- 
ent of the others, and is, at the same time, debarred 
from controlling them. The only powers of inter- 
ference granted, are the power of impeachment usually 
wielded by the legislative body, and the veto power 
pertaining to the chief magistracy. In some cases, too, 
the legislature has a share in electing the chief magis- 
trate, and it nearly always has the power to make or 
or refuse appropriations. Both of these powers imply 
a measure of control. A still further degree of con- 
trol is exercised by the legislature in those states in 
which the cabinet, or council, of the executive is, by 
law or custom, "responsible "to a majority of the house 
of representatives. 

All independent states have autonomous (or self- 
governing) powers, and sovereign (or treaty-making) 
powers. Dependent states have autonomous powers 
(more or less complete) but have no power to make 
treaties. These powers are properly co-ordinate, but 
may be wielded by the same branches of government. 

10. Supreme and Subordinate Powers. — In 
dividing the duties of government between local, pro- 
vincial and national systems, many cases arise in which 
laws conflict and one side or the other must give way. 
The degree of concession to be made on each side, and 

^ What is said of Po-ordinate powers? What of the theory and practice of 
this mode of division ? What of the classification into autonomous and sover- 
eign powers ? 



1 6 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the points on which each system shall remain supreme, 
is usually fixed by mutual agreement in the shape of a 
constitution or organic law. Thus, in the United 
States, the federal constitution, and the laws made in 
pursuance thereof, are accepted as the supreme law of 
the land, because they expressly confine themselves to 
questions of national interest, on which point it is 
agreed that merely local judgment or feeling shall 
give way. In like manner, nearly every country has 
a national and local system of government, the national 
government being supreme in some respects, and be- 
ing debarred from interference in matters of local im- 
portance. 

II. The Constitution. — The purpose of a consti- 
tution is to restrict the will of the party in power, and 
in the interest of consistency, justice and dignity, to 
prevent violent changes in the government. It also 
serves to fix the limits of authority in the co-ordinate 
branches of the government, and to prevent conflicts 
of jurisdiction between the local and the general gov- 
ernment systems. 

The basis of the constitution, like the basis of all 
government, is power, and it may be said to rest on the 
will of the strongest party in the state, whether that 
party be the people or the crown. As to origin it is 
sometimes framed by the people for themselves, and 
sometimes granted by an autocratic monarch, either in 
response to a popular demand, or of his own free will ; 
or again, it may be like the Enghsh constitution, estab- 
lished by precedent in a long continued series of strug- 
gles and agreements between crown and people. 

The constitution, if written provides for its own 

lo. Describe the division of government into supreme and subordinate 
branches ? By w^hat is the joint action of these systems regulated ? 

,J}- ^^^' is a constitution, and what is its purpose ? What is said of its ba^is? 
Of Its origin ? Of its amendment ? Of its dissolution ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 17 

amendment, and it may be wholly set aside, either by 
general consent in adopting a new one, or by revolu- 
tion. 

12. The Legislative Power. — If there be no 
constitution, laws are established by a decree of the 
sovereign, but in constitutional countr.es, there is al- 
ways a legislative body, consisting of one or more 
chambers, whose duty it is to prepare and adopt laws. 
Even under despotisms a legislature is formed, usually 
by appointment, to frame and discuss the measures to 
by afiervvard promulgated by autocratic decree. Gen- 
erally speaking, legislatures consist of deputies elected 
by the people, though the upper house often contains 
members by hereditary right, or by appointment of the 
crown. 

13. The Judicial Power. — The essence of law is 
that it should be general in its application, and that it 
should not be framed to meet a particular case. The in- 
terpretation and application of laws are, therefore, usu- 
ally entrusted, not to those who make and amend 
them, but to an entirely different class, bound by cus- 
tom and precedent to give consistent and impartial 
judgment as to the effect of new laws on the great 
body 01 laws already existing. Hence, a judicial de- 
partment ot government is established, in order th it 
when local courts do not interpret the law satisfactorily, 
appeal can be made, not to the law-making body, but 
to a separate department, a supreme court, trained to 
take all laws and interest into consideration, and L,ive 
a just and final decision of the point in question. 

14. The Executive Power. — The courts interpret 
and apply laws only in those cases which are brought 

12. How arc laws established under despotism ? Under conslitiuio:ial gov:-.;i- 
ments. 

13. What is the puvposa of a judicial branch of the government ? Why is it 
usually distinguished from the legislature ? 



i8 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

before them by disputes between citizens, or between 
citizens and the government. By far the greater part 
of the administration of government consists in carry- 
ing out laws whose meaning is not a subject of dispute. 
These are the executive oi administrative duties of 
government, and are entrusted to a department entire- 
ly distinct from the legislature or the supreme court. 

15. The Chief Magistrate. — Over all three de- 
partments, but most intimately connected with the ex- 
ecutive, is the head of the government, the chief 
magistrate. In him are vested numerous powers that 
pertain to sovereignty, either in his own right or as 
representative of his people. Over the law-making 
body he has usually the right of veto, or the right to 
dissolve the legislature and call for a new election. 
Over the judiciary he exercises the power of appoint- 
ment of judges, and the pardoning power. Over the 
executive department he has supreme control, both in 
the matter of appointment and administration. Out- 
side of the autonomy of the State, he has the power to 
negotiate treaties and superintend his country's rela- 
tions with foreign nations, and the right generally to 
appear and speak as the representative of his govern- 
ment. 

So much for the general principles to be observed in 
the study of civil governments. We will now proceed 
to examine the governments as they actually exist. 



14. What are the duties of the executive department of government? 

15. What is said of the chief m^-gistraie as connected with the executive de- 
partment? As distinguished from it? 



PART 2. 



SOVEREIGN STATES. 



CHAPTER L 



FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. 

i6. Criterion. — The generally accepted criterion of 
a good form of government, is its ability to maintain 
order and establish justice, while at the same time pro- 
moling, or at least not cramping, the mental growth of 
the i)eop]e. This is the only test that seems to have 
a utilitarian basis ; other tests there are, but they are 
founded on a quasi divine right to rule, of the people 
or prince, as the case may be. But the test given, to 
be effectual, must be complete in its application. It 
is not sufficient that a government keep order, nor even 
that it be also well administered. Pope's couplet, 
"For forms of government let fools contest, 
What e'er is best administered, is best," 

and Tennyson's demand for a "still, strong man, in a" 
blatant land," are both based on a misconception of 
the true interests of the people. A prime requisite of 
good government is that it should be sustained by the 
hearty co-operation of the people, and this can only be 
secured by the political education of its subjects. 
This political education can only be insured by the 
participation of the people, through their representa- 
tives, in the duties of government, and, generally speak- 
ing is possible only in such case. The emperor of Russia, 
for instance, dares not permit the education of his peo- 



20 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

pie in the theory of government, by free discussion, 
because this would lead directly to a public agitation, 
for the purpose of restricting the powers of the Russian 
autocracy. A people wise enough to co-operate intelli- 
gently with a despotism, are wise enough to- dispense 
with it. On the other hand, it is quite necessary that 
there should be a basis of power, to prevent violent inter- 
ruptions in administration, and until the people are 
sufficiently educated to resist illegal reform movements, 
an established chief magistracy is decidedly -a blessing. 
The Spanish American republics are a case in point. 
The desire for place and power, and the impatience 
with administrative mistakes, which in these republics 
lead to revolution, in Brazil for instance, merely result 
in a change of ministry. The advantage is obvious. 

17. Sovereign and Autonomous States. — States 
or governments internationally considered, are sovereign 
or autonomous. If a state is independent of other 
governments, it is styled sovereign. If one state estab- 
lishes a protectorate, or suzerainty, over another state, 
the former is suzerain and the latter dependent. The 
extent of the suzerain power varies greatly in different 
cases; a dependent state has no power to make war or 
peace, and, generally, no power to negotiate treaties, 
though occasionally it is allowed to form commercial 
agreements, or alliances. Another way in which a 
state may lose its sovereignty, is by entering a federa- 
tion, and delegating its sovereign power to a central gov- 
ernment. 

Sovereign, here, has nothing to do with the autonomy 
or self-government of a state. The term has been ap- 
plied t J) the states of the American Union, but evidenf- 
ly in a different sense from that in which we here use 

16 What is the criterion of a good f.^rm of government ? Hew may order be 
maintained at the expense of progress ? Can a people be too free as to their 
choice of government ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 21 

it. The federal government represents the United 
States internationally, and hence is a sovereign state or 
nation. In the same way, the tycoon's govern- 
ment in Japan was, before the revolution of 1869, 
sovereign, the mikado's rights to the contrary not- 
withstanding. In the autonomy of the United vStates 
of America, there is neither suzerain nor depen- 
dency (barring the territorial governments), but 
a federation* of states of equal dignity, under a 
general government of strictly defined puwers. This 
is true, in theory, of all federations, but in practice the 
smaller states often sink to the position of virtual de- 
pendencies. 

18. Federations. — It is often to the interest of 
states to form a federation or union, and establish a 
general government, both to represent them in their re- 
lations with foreigners, and to discharge those duties 
that concern the union as a whole, rather than any par- 
ticular section of it. In these cases, the powers of the 
general government are supreme in international af- 
fairs, but limited in internal administration. The fed- 
erations of the world are the republics of the United 
States, Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, the Argentine 
Confederation, Liberia and Switzerland, and the empires 
of Germany and Austria-Hungary; also, perhaps, the 
kingdom of Sweden and Norway, which has the same 
monarch, but is governed by separate constitutions and 
legislatures. 

All countries of any size are subdivided into provinces, 
with councils possessing legislative powers more or less 
independent and complete; but these differ essentially 

17. V hat is a sovereign state ? What an autonomous state ? What is a fed- 
eration ? Is it sovereign or autonomous ? What is a component state ? What 
a suzerain state ? What a dependency ? Which of th«.se is sovereign ? Give 
nstances in each case. 

18. Why are federations formed ? Name some of them. How do they differ 
from ordinary general and provincial governments ? 



22 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

from federations, in that the original power^ in them is 
vested in the national government, and not in that of the 
component states. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

19. Our Federal System. — The national govern- 
ment under which we Hve is a good example of a fed- 
eration, first, because it has tested two forms oi federal 
union, and settled on the only one that ever proved 
efficacious; and second, because it has, without mater- 
ially altering its constitution, extended the union to 
cover twenty-five new states. If a conquering nation, 
like ancient Rome, should admit its new provinces to a 
share in the administration of the empire, or if England 
should give her colonies proportionate representation in 
parliament, we would recognize the hazardous nature 
of the experiment. The fact that the_ settlers of the 
western states have generally been, in race, nature 
and poUtical habits, similar to the people of the origi- 
nal colonies — orifnotso similar, have usually lacked 
political traditions — enabled our institutions to stand a 
test, which, under different circumstances, it were folly 
to apply. 

20. Federal Organization. — There are two differ- 
ent modes of organizing a federal union. The federal au- 
thorities may represent governments solely, and their 
acts may be obligatory only on the governments as 
such; or they may have power to legislate for the peo- 
ple individually, and to execute or enforce their laws 
by distinct administrative machinery. The forriier 
plan was tried in the German confederation, in Switz- 

iQ. Under what federal government do we live ? Why is it a good example 
of this form of government ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 23 

erland previous to 1847, and in this country from 17 81 
to 1788, and in all three cases it was discarded as 
weak and defective. The pov/ers of a central govern- 
ment, which relies on the voluntary action of the state 
government to execute its laws, are virtually restricted 
to giving advice which the states can follow or not as 
they please. Foreign nations hesitate to address a 
government so evidently a mere agent of other parties, 
preferring to deal directly with the principals, the cou!- 
ponent states themselves. 

In local affairs, the federal congress, having no pow- 
er to coerce the state governments, could only entreat 
them to enforce the national laws, If the particular 
laws in question were distasteful to the people 
of the state, they would in all probability be ig- 
noed. Sometimes, as in the present German empire, 
one state may be so large and powerful that other 
states cannot afford to offend it, and tlu> state then 
identifies itself with, or supplies the-place of, the cen- 
tral government, but this is obviously contrary to the 
purpose of federations, i. e., to preserve rather than to 
destroy, the individuality of minor states. Moreover, 
unless the strong state be overpoweringly superior, 
such 3 condition of affairs is more likely to provoke civ- 
il war, than to strengthen unity or maintain peace. 

The second method rf orgaiiizing a federation is that 
adopted by the United States in 1788, by Switzerland 
in 1808 and Gemany (to some extent at least) in 1870. 

Within the powers granted by the constitution, the 
federal government is em powdered to make laws for the 
guidance of individuals, and to enforce these laws by 
means of its own otHcers and its own tribunals. 



20. What are the two mod s of organizing a federal system ? What countries 
have tried and discarded the le igiie principles of union ? Why ? What some- 
times supplies the place of a stroui; central government ? Describe the second 
mode of federal organization. 



24 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Whenever state and federal laws conflict, the latter, 
if in accordance with the constitution, are supreme, and 
the former are set aside. Of such nature is the Amer- 
ican union. 

21. Formation and History of the Union. — 
The first league or confederacy formed by the Ameri- 
can colonies, was the continental conp;ress of delegates, 
first convened in September, 1774. This w^as an extra- 
legal body, of no authority, except as its act was enforc- 
ed by the colonies. The colonial governments, formed 
under charters from the British crown, became, by suc- 
cessful rebellion, sovereign states, but th% exigencies of 
war had already forced them into a league. The same 
congress which drafted the declaration of independence, 
draftea at the same time, "articles of confederation and 
perpetual union" between the colonies, and the league 
was assented to by most of the colonies through their 
representatives in 1778, and by the others in 1779 and 
1781. But after experiencing two years of war and 
§ix years of peace under this compact, popular opinion 
turned in favor of a central government, with more ex- 
tended and effective powers. A convention was then 
held and our present form of government agreed upon; 
the constitution was drawn up, and being submitted to 
popular vote, was duly ratified by the people of the 
several states. The original form has been, in some of 
its details, slightly modified by the constitutional 
amendments, twelve of which were adopted by three 
fourths of the states, during the first fifteen years of 
our national existence, and the other three adopted 
afttr the civil war of 1 86 1-65. 

22. How Composed. — Under the articles of con- 
federation the central government comprised but one 

21. 'V^'hen and why was the first league of the American colonies formed ? 
When were the articles of confederation adopted ? Why were they not satisfac- 
tory ? \\ hat change was made ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 25 

department, the legislative, ar,d made no pretense to 
executive or judicial power. By the constitution, the 
government is entrusted to three separate authorities, 
the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The 
executive power is vested in a president, who, together 
with a vice president, is elected for four years by the 
states, through special electoral colleges. Each one 
of the thirty-eight states has the right to appoint, in any 
manner it pleases, as many electors as it has repre- 
sentatives in congress, and these electors, meeting in 
their respective states, form the "colleges," and cast 
their votes for president and vice president. As they 
are considered bound to vote for their party candidates, 
the election may be regarded as the direct act of the 
people of the several states. 

The legislative power is vested in a congress, con- 
sisting of a senate and house of representatives. The 
senate, of two members from each state, is chosen for 
six years by the state legislatures. As one-third of the 
senatorial terms expire every other year it follows that 
the senate has always a two-thirds* membership, and 
hence is always in office. 

The house of representatives is chosen in direct 
election by the popular vote of the states, which are 
given representation according to their population. 
The election is for two years; at the end of that period 
the " congress," as it is called, expires, and a new 
election is held. 

The judicial power of the government is vested in 
one supreme court of (at present) nine judges, and in 
such inferior courts as congress from time to time sees 
fit to establish. So far these inferior courts are the 



22. How does the pre'^ent form of government differ from that under the con- 
federation ? What are the departments of government and to whom are they 
entrusted ? How is the president selected ? The senate ? The house ot repre- 
sentatives ? 



26 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

circuit and district courts only, but an intermediate 
appellate court is projected. These tribunals are 
organized under act of congress, and the judges are ap- 
pointed by the president with the consent of the 
senate. 

23. Sphere of the Government. — In transactions 
with foreign powers the authority of the federal gov- 
ernment is, of necessity, complete; and as it is this 
completeness of sovereign power that makes a nation, 
our central government has always been truly national 
in the sense of representing a single people; but in in- 
ternal affairs, the government did certainly receive 
an increase of imperial authority from the adoption of 
the constitution and its amendments. These powers 
extend to the making of such arrangements as are, in 
the opinion of the states, necessary to their enjoyment 
of the full benefits of Union. The federal congress is 
given exclusive power to impose duties on imports, to 
regulate naturalization and bankruptcy, to coin money, 
establish post offices and routes, and to grant copy- 
rights and patents, because in all these cases there is 
an evident need of uniformity in the law. Other pow- 
ers are granted to the central government as arbiter be- 
tween the states, such as the power to regulate inter- 
state commerce, and to control national highways 
whether by water or by land, and the survey and sale 
of the public lands. A further extension of the right 
to legislate for national highways is the right to make 
and improve roads and canals, and to dredge and 
deepen navigable rivers and harbors, in the different 
states, at the cost of the whole country. 

24. Extension of Imperial Power. — The pow- 
ers of the central government have been greatly ex- 



23. What class of powers are granted to the federal government ? With what 
object ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 27 

tended during the last quarter of a century. This ex- 
tension has come about partly through the abnormal 
influence of the war, but principally through the work- 
ing of natural causes. It is observable in the growth 
of empires, that a strong central government tends to 
strengthen itself by absorption of the rights and privi- 
leges of the component states. The states in their 
disputes and quarrels, appeal to the arbitration of the 
central government, and hence are driven into champ- 
ioning the rights of the arbiter to interfere in behalf of 
justice. The weaker party in each state is also ready 
with its appeal, so that the central government soon 
comes to be credited with virtues to which it cannot 
justly lay claim. The growth of the kingdom of France 
has been cited as a conspicuous example of this tend- 
ency to centralization, and the extension, or rather the 
maintenance, of the suzerain powers of the Turkish 
porte, is largely due to thesamecauses. In this country 
the southern Republican appeals to the federal power 
for protection against his Democratic fellow citizens, 
the farmer or merchant makes a similar appeal as re- 
gards railroads and other monopolies, and, last but 
not least, each poverty-stricken district appeals forfed- 
eral aid to improve its rivers and harbors and other- 
wise fxilitate (not regulate) its commerce with the 
world at large. Under these circumstances, the only 
wonder is that the integrity of state rights has not been 
further impaired. For this we have to thank the judi- 
cial department of the government, which is the final 
judge of the extent of the powers conferred. 

25 The Guardian of the Constitution. — Undera 
duplex form of government, where each citizen owes 
allegiance to both state and federal authorities, it is 



24. How have the powers of the central government been extended ? In what 
manner ? 



28 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

necessary not only that the constitution should ex- 
plicitly define the powers of the different governments, 
but that the power to decide between them in case of 
dispute should reside in some body in a measure in- 
dependent of both disputants. The judicial depart- 
ment of a republican government is the one, from the 
nature of its appointment and duties, least- likely to be 
moved by popular impulse or partisan consideration. 
To say nothing of the conservative nature of the legal 
profession, judges who are appointed to office for life, 
feel themselves independent of the will of the majority, 
and in free states it is the popular majority that men- 
aces the constitution. The supreme court of the Unit- 
ed States, in rendering decisions, is authorized to set 
aside any law it may deem contrary to the constitution, 
and this decision is as binding upon lowercourts as if it 
were actual legislation. To this extent, therefore, the 
supreme court is made the guardianof the constitution, 
but its nullifying power is limited lo those cases which 
are brought before it judicially. Until a case involving 
the law in question is brought before it, the court 
offers no opinion. This gives the decision of the court 
the air of an inevitable declaration of honest opinion 
which it would not have, had the court been invested 
with a veto power similar to that of the president. 

It is of the highest importance that the people of the 
union have confidence in the non-partisanship of the 
authoritative interpreterof the constitution, and anything 
that may tend to impair this confidence is injurious to 
both government and people. No ground, not even the 
slightest, should be given for suspicion that the judges 
may be moved by party or personal ambitions, or by 



25. What check has been placed on the illicit extension of the powers of gov- 
ernment ? Who exercises this moderative power ? To what cases is this power 
confined ? Why ? What is said of the supreme court's reputation for non- 
partisan and impartial judgment? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 29 

anything but an honest opinion as to the real meaning 
of the constitution. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE UNITED STATES OF MEXICO. 

25. Republica Mexicana. — P.^^ its present consti- 
tution, bearing date Feb. 5, 1857, M xico is declared a 
federative republic, comi>osed ol separate states, 19 
originally, .27 at present — bound together in one body 
poUtic by fundamental and constitutional law. Each 
state has its own legislature or " state congress" and 
its own governor ; and possesses, in theory, full powers 
of government with regard to local affairs. 

27. Like the United States Government.— 
The political system of Mexico was evidently modeled 
on that of the United States, both in the classifi- 
cation of powers entrusted to local and general govern- 
ments, respectively, and in the division of powers 
!n the general government itself These are classified 
as legislative, executive and judicial, and are respec- 
tively vested in a congress, president and federal court. 
The congress is in two houses, a senate of two members 
from each state, and a house of 331 members, appor- 
tioned among the several states at the rate of one to 
every 80,000 J nhabitants. The president and vice 
\Tcsi^ent are elected for four years. 

28. Unlike the United States Government. — 
The presidential electors are chosen by districts, (not 
states) one for each 100 inhabitants. An executive 
council, consisting of the vice president and half the 



26. When was the Mexican constitution adopted? What form of government 
does it establish ? 

27. Wherein does the political system of Mexico resemble that of the United 
States ? 



30 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

senate, sits during the recesses of congress. Besides 
these dissimilarities there exists in the two countries a 
great difference, both in law and custom, in the power 
over state affairs wielded by the federal government. 

29. History of Mexican Government. — Pre- 
vious to gaining her independence, Mexico was govern- 
ed by Spain through a viceroy and audiencia or 
advisory council. This council, with which the viceroy 
was bidden to confer on matters of importance, was 
appointed by the Spanish crown and consisted exclu- 
sively of natives of Spain, who were in no way allied 
with Mexican interests. V^hen, in 1808, the municipal 
council of the city of Mex co petitioned the viceroy, 
Don Jose Iturrigaray, to summon a national congress 
of deputies, the audiencia not only rejected the petition 
disdainfully, but proceeded to punish both the temerity 
of their demand itself and the complaisance with which 
it had been received. The viceroy was accused 
of heresy and delivered over to the inquisition, ardthe 
audiencia continued for some time in absolute control 
of the government. Its cruelty toward the Mexicans 
soon roused open insurrection, headed by Don Miguel 
Hidalgo y Costilla, a parish priest in the village of 
Dolores. Sept. 16, 1810, he raised the standard of in- 
dependence and a civil war began, in which each side 
seemed to vie with the other in cold-blooded ferocity. 
Hidalgo was captured and shot, as was also his successor, 
another priest, by name Morenos. But just as the 
cause of the patriots seemed lost, the constitution of 
the cortes, introduced in Spain in 1812, was extended 
to Mexico by express decree. This conferred electoral 
rights on the white population, and enabled them to 
show, without openly joining the rebellion, their sym- 
pathy with it. An amnesty was proclaimed, and many 
of the rebels took advantage of it. Shortly after the 

28. In what particulars does it differ from that of the United States ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 31 

return of Ferdinand VII to Spain, the constitution 
was abolished by royal decree, and, after some years, 
re-established in response to a military insurrection. 
Viceroy Apodaca of Mexico was opposed to the con- 
stitution, and though obliged to feign submission to it, 
he plotted a counter insurrection which should restore 
the absolute power of the king, at least as far as Mex- 
ico was concerned. In this he was encouraged by 
secret letters from the king indicating a disposition to 
transfer the royal court to Mexico. But this plot 
overreached itself. Col. Augustine Iturbide, chosen 
by the viceroy to head the reaction, boldly changed the 
programme and proclaimed Mexico an independent 
constitutional monarchy. The crown was to be offered 
to King Ferdinand, or to one of the two infantes of Spain, 
on condition of their resigning their claims to the Span- 
ish crown. The result was that not one of the three 
would consent to take the crown under these circum- 
stances. Both the army and the people rallied about 
Iturbide, and the Spaniards were forced to make terms 
with him. The independence of the country was 
recognized ; Iturbide as liberator became the popular 
idol, and, on the 18th of May, 1822, was elected em- 
l)eror. But his empire was short lived. Within six 
months he was at odds with his congress, and Gen. 
Santa Anna had raised the standard of revolt at Vera 
Cruz; and in May, 1823, the ex-emperor had sailed for 
England, exiled, buc liberally pensioned in recognition 
of his valuable services. Returning the next year to 
attempt to regain his imperial power, he was captured, 
tried, convicted and shot. 

"When once Iturbide was overthrown," writes M. 
Lucas Alaman, " the history of Mexico may be called 
the history of the revolutions of Gen. Santa Anna. At 
one time he organized them for his own interest ; at 
another took part in them when commenced by others. 



32 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

He labored one day for the aggrandizement of his 
friends, the day after for his own. He raised up a 
faction, and then cast it down and oppressed it, and sup- 
ported the opposite faction. He thus kept up a see- 
saw between different parties. He was the promoter 
of political events, and the fate of the country was 
bound up with his, amidst all the alternations which at 
times placed him in possession of the most absolute 
power, and at others precipitated him into captivity or 
exile." Up to 1833, Santa Anna labored rather to 
make and unmake presidents than to advance himself 
to the chief magistracy. In that year, however, he 
assumed the dignity of president, and continued in that 
office — with slight interruptions — down to 1856. He 
was several times forced to retire from it ; first in 1836, 
when he was captured by the Texans at the battle of 
San Jacinto ; a second time in January, 1845, and again 
in 1847, afterthe invasion of the country by the United 
States. In 1853 he returned to power, the nation by 
universal suffrage electing him dictator for life ; but 
after three years, he was again deposed and exiled. It 
was at this period that the present constitution of 
Mexico was adopted. 

The form of government adopted after the overthrow 
of Iturbide was that of a federal republic, after the 
model of the United States. But whereas in our 
country the federal form had naturally been taken to 
unite isolated colonies, each state jealously maintain- 
ing her autonomy, Mexico had never governed itself, 
and had been accustomed to a most centralized form 
of government. Hence the system of individual states 
united by federation had no deep root in Mexico, and 

29. What led to the first Mexican revolt against Spain ? Describe the pro- 
gress of the War ? How was independence at last secur-d ? What f • rm of 
government was established ? How long did it last ? What has been the his- 
tory I f Mexican Government ? What is said of the establishment and preserva- 
tion of the federal system ? What of the evolution of the congress ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 33 

in 1835, under the first presidency of Santa Anna, the 
state governments were set aside, and their powers ab- 
sorbed by the central government. In 1846 the federal 
system was again established, only to be discarded 
under the dictatorship of 1 85 3. It was revived, however, 
after the final deposition of Santa Anna, and embodied 
in the present constitution. 

The first national representative body in Mexico was 
A junta or secret council of self-elected persons installed 
by Gen. Rayon, who commanded one of the principal 
bands of insurgents after the capture of Hidalgo. This 
body met at Zitacuaro, in the province of Valladolid ; 
and presumed to address the viceroy with offers of peace 
on the basis of Mexican independence. To punish this 
audacity^ Gen. Calleja marched on Zitacuaro, killed 
its principal inhabitants, and reduced the town to a' 
heap of ruins, which is said to exist to this day. A 
new junta, representing the people of the different sec- 
tions, partly by appointment and partly by election, 
and styling itself a "congress," met at Chilpancingo, 
and published a declaration of independence. This 
body was greatly favored by Morelos, but his successor, 
Gen. Teran, quarreled with and dispersed it. It con- 
tinued a merely nominal existence until adopted by 
Iturbide at Iguala. Under the empire and the republic, 
this congress has taken a prominent part in the gov- 
ernment, but there being no guarantee of the honesty of 
elections, it has never altogether deserved the name of 
a representative body. 



CHAPTER IV. 



VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA. 

30. Estados Unidos de Colombia. — Like the 
United States of America, after which it was modeled, 
the United States of Colombia is a federation of states, 



34 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

each claiming sovereign rights, except in so far as the 
same are delegated to the central government. The 
states, nine in number, elect in such manner as they 
see fit, their representatives in the two houses that com- 
pose the federal congress, and unite in electing a presi- 
dent and vice-president, the latter being also chairman 
of the senate. 

31. Unlike the United States Government. — 
The Colombian senate is composed of three members 
from each state ; the membership of the house of re- 
presentatives — numbering 66 — is apportioned among 
the states on the basis of one deputy for the first 50,000 
of population and one for each additional 20,000. The 
president, elected for two years, administers the 
government through four ministers or secretaries, who 
are responsible to congress. 

32. History and Formation of the Govern- 
ment. — The first republic of ("olombia was formed in 
1 8 19, by Gen. Simon Bolivar, the South American 
liberator, in the struggle of the colonies to throw off the 
Spanish yoke. It comprised the territory now included 
in the republics of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador, 
and by the constitution promulgated in 1821, was divid- 
ed into twelve departments, in imitation of the French 
republic. In 183 1 the republic fell to pieces, and the 
three existing republics were formed, Colombia under 
the name of New Granada. 

New Granada was politically divided into one state 
(of Panama) ; twenty-two provinces and three territories. 
These were subdivided into cantons, of which there 
were 130, and again into districts or parishes B.nda/deas 
or hamlets. There were 816 parishes and 70 hamlets 
in 1851. A hamlet is a partly organized parish, as a 

30. What is said of the Hkeness of the Colombian govemmem to that of our 
own country ? 

31. Note the chief differences between the federal systems. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 35 

territory is a partly organized state or province. Each 
district had its council and executive officer, each can- 
ton its executive, but no council, and each province its 
governor and provincial legislature. The state of 
Panama was more independent than the provinces, and 
styled its chief magistrate president instead of governor, 
a distinction which is maintained to this day. 

The present constitution of Colombia was formed by 
the convention of Rio Negro in 1863. At the begin- 
ning of i860 the liberal party, under the leadership of 
Gen. Thomas Mosquera, rose against President Ospina, 
whom the Federalist or Conservative party had installed 
in 1857. Taking possession of Bogota, and driving 
Ospina's government into the southern province of 
Antioquia, Mosquera formed a federal republic to be 
known as the United States of Colombia. Of this gov- 
ernment he was proclaimed dictator, Sept. 20, 1861. 
In December, 1862, peace was made and a constitu- 
tional convention summoned. This met at Rio Negro, 
state of Antioquia, in February of the following year. 
Gen. Mosquera resigned his dictatorship and was ap- 
pointed provisional president. The present constitution 
was drawn up and proclaimed April 23, 1863. The first 
constitutional president, Don Manuel Murillo Toro, was 
installed April i, 1864. Two years later, Gen. Mos- 
quera succeeded Toro, but coming in conflict with his 
congress, was deposed and imprisoned. His vice-presi- 
dent, Gen. Santos Gutierrez, succeeded him. From 
187 1 to 1875, civil war prevailed and the presidency 
underwent frequent changes. 

33. Republica de Venezuela. — The republic of 
Venezuela was formed in 183 1, by secession from the 
republic of Colombia, founded by Bolivar. The con- 



32. Give the history of the first republic of Colombia ? Describe the polit'cal 
organization of New Granada. Also its transformation into the present united 
States of Colombia. 



36 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

stitutlon then adopted, and re-proclaimed in amended 
form in 1864, v/as avowedly in imitation of the United 
States of America. Even the number of states, now 
twenty-two, was originally the same — thirteen. The 
president is elected by the people voting by states, or, 
in case no legal choice is made — by the congress vot- 
ing by states. He holds office for fouryears, beginning 
the 20th of February. He appoints his ministers, who 
are strictly his organs and vacate office with him. The 
congress consists of a senate of two members from 
each state, and a house formed by each state's choosing 
one deputy for the first 25,000 of its inhabitants and a 
second deputy for a number in excess beyond 12,000. 
The high federal court, consisting of five members, cor- 
responds in character and jurisdiction to our federal 
supreme court. The states which form the union re- 
ciprocally acknowledge each other's rights to self 
government, declare themselves equal as political units, 
and reserve to themselves all sovereign rights not ex- 
pressly delegated to the central government. 

34. Unlike the United States Government. — 
The most apparent dissimilarity between the govern- 
ment of Venezuela and that of its prototype, arises from 
the jealousy with which the states have maintained 
their independence. Even in cases where the peace of 
a state is endangered by domestic disputes, the federal 
government is debarred from armed intervention, and 
can only tender its good offices to bring about a peace- 
ful solution of the difficulty. In our own country, the 
federal government is bound to interfere to protect the 
state government from domestic violence when called 
upon by the legislature, or by the governor when the 
legislature cannot be convened, and hence it has al- 
ways exercised large discretion in cases of disputed 

33. When was the republic of Venezuela formed? What is said of its resem- 
blance to the United States ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 37 

election. The Venezuelans either have not so much 
confidence in the discretion and impartiality of their 
federal executive, or they prefer to reserve to them- 
selves the " sacred right of revolution." 

Moreover, if this clause of the constitution, "the 
government of the union shall not possess in the states 
resident officers with juris'diction and authority other 
than the officers of the states themselves" — is to be 
interpreted literally, the federal government, and even 
the federal courts, are made dependent on the states 
for the enforcement of their decrees. The customs 
officers constitute an exception, but even these are so 
far under state influence that the state is often able to 
appropriate the federal revenue and refuse to account 
for it. 

There are many minor dissimilarities, such as that 
the president's veto is not conclusive unless sustained 
by a majority of the state legislatures, and that the 
judges of the federal court are elected by these legis- 
latures, but these simply mark the spirit of indepen- 
dence in the states, without materially affecting the 
f jrm of government. 

35. Origin and History. — The early political or- 
ganization of Venezuela was similar to that of New 
Granada, with which it was connected. Since its se- 
cession, though it has preserved its form of government 
without material alteration, it has been distracted 
by internal dissension leading often to civil war, 
through the struggles for supremacy of the Federal 
and Confederal parties, the former advocating a strong 
centralized government, and the latter the greatest 
possible independence of the separate states. 

34. What is the mos*^ apparent difference between the Venezuelan constitution 
and that of our federal government? How is the federal government, in that 
country, made dependent on that of the States? Wliat is said of the 
president's veto ? Of the appointment of the supreme court? 

35. What is said of the origin and history of the Venezuelan republic ? 



38 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

CHAPTER V 



ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION AND LIBERIA. 

36. Confederacion Argentina. — The Argentine 
Confederation, formerly known as the United Provinces 
of the River de la Plata, consists of fourteen states 
united as a federal republic. Not only is its form of 
government obviously modeled on that of the United 
States par excellence^ but its constitution, adopted m 
1853, is a flattering imitation of our federal organic law, 
The composition and attributions of the two houses of 
congress ; the mode of election and the duties of pres- 
ident and vice president , the nature of the supreme 
court, and the jurisdiction accorded it, are very nearly 
the same in both constitutions, while in many of the 
minor provisions for the regulation of various state and 
federal officers, an equal degree of similarity exists. 
' 37. Unlike the United States Government. — 
The president and vice president of the Argentine re- 
public are elected for six years, and are not eligible for 
re-election until after the expiration of a similar period. 
No executive order of the president is valid unless 
countersigned by the minister or secretary of the proper 
department, but, since the president has absolute power 
to appoint and remove the members of his cabinet, 
this check amounts to little. In the same way. the 
force of the provision that ministers shall be " respon- 
sible " to congress, is broken by the necessity of re- 
sorting to a legal impeachment in order to remove one 
of them. The membership of the house of represen- 
tatives is apportioned among the several states, as with 
us, but the deputies are chosen not singly by districts, 
but on a general ticket as we choose presidential elect- 

36. What is said of the resemblance of the Argentine constitution to that of 
the United States ? Note the points of resemblance- 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 39 

ors. Also since but half the house retires biennially, 
the deputies hold office for four years, instead of for 
two years as with us. 

The constitution establishes, and commancj^ the 
maintenance of, the Roman Catholic religion, and mem- 
bership in the Roman Catholic church is one of the 
conditions of eligibility to the presidency, but freedom 
of belief and practice is guaranteed to the people; and 
upon this point, as on every other, the fullest liberty of 
the individual citizen is contemplated by the constitu- 
tion. 

38. Origin and History. — The revolution which 
separated the viceroyalty of the Plata from Spain, be- 
gan after the fall of the " Junta of Seville," in 18 10. 
The viceroy. Marshal Baltazar Hidalgo de Cisneros, 
was cordially hated by the colonists, and, on finding him 
suddenly deprived of support from Spain, they rose and 
deposed him. May 25, 18 10, and established a govern- 
mental board, headed by Cornelio Saavedra. Civil war 
followed, the Spanish party taking possession of Mon- 
tevideo, in the province of Uruguay, which then form- 
ed part of the viceroyalty. This war ended with the 
defeat of the Spaniards and the occupation of their 
city, June 20, 18 14; but hostilities with the Spanish 
party in Chili and Peru continued for eight years. Dur- 
ing this period, the government was held and despot- 
ically administered by the strongest party, presided 
over by the general who seemed, for the moment, best 
qualified to maintain himself and keep order. A dis- 
pute arose over the form of government to be estab- 
lished. Some factions wished a unified, centralized 
government, but could agree neither upon the capital 
nor the president. Others, who could not hope to head 
the nation, demanded a confederation with separate 



37. Note the differences in form and practice between the two governments. 



40 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

state governments, and this plan commended itself to 
many as the surest escape from the tyranny of a mili- 
tary dictator. Before this dispute could be settled, 
Brazil declared war, demanding possession of Uruguay. 
This war was ended by the convention of August 27, 
1828, by which both countries acknowledged and agreed 
to maintain the independence of Uruguay. 

Civil war now arose again between the "Federal" 
and *' Unitarian " parties. Gen, Lavalle having de- 
posed, and, finally, executed Dorrego, governor of 
Buenos Ayres, and leader of the Federal party, made 
a truce with Dorrego 's lieutenant, Gen. Juan Manuel 
Rosas, and exalted him to the governorship. The 
country falling into disorder, Rosas was given dictato- 
rial power, March 7, 1835, and from that time until 
1852, he maintained himself in power, in spite of the 
revolts (headed by Lavalle and others) which his insane 
and brutal tyranny aroused against him. Finally, Gen. 
Justo Jose de Urquiza, governor of the province of 
Entre-Rios, revolted, and, forming an alliance with the 
neighboring province of Corrientes, and with the em- 
pire of Brazil, marched upon the city of Buenos Ayres. 
Rosas was defeated in battle at Monte-Case ros, and 
fleeing on board an English man-of-war, went to Eng- 
land, where he lived for twenty-five years as a private 
citizen. 

Urquiza was made " provisional director " by an as- 
sembly of the provincial governors, and a congress was 
assembled which framed and adopted the existing con- 
stitution, May 25, 1853. Under this -constitution, Ur- 
quiza was chosen president. 

But in all this, Buenos Ayres had taken no part, and 
had overthrown the provincial government set up by 

38. Describe the struggle of the La Plata provinces for independence. Also 
the ensuing struggle between rival factions. What wa the final result ? How 
did the viceroyalty lose some of its provinces ? 



IN THEORY Ax\D TRACTICE. 41 

Urquiza after the flight of Rosas. This led to war in 
which Buenos Ayres was finally successful, and her 
general, Bartolome Mitre, was elected president for six 
years from October, 1862, and the capital of the con- 
federation was at the same time transferred from Par- 
ana to Buenos Ayres. This was the last revolution. 
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, elected in 1868, and Dr. 
Nicolas Avellaneda, elected in 1874, both peacefully 
ended their terms of office, and the present incumbent. 
Gen. Roca, seems likely to do the same. 

The viceroyalty of the River Plata included the pro- 
vinces of Uruguay, — formerly known as the Banda 
Oriental — Paraguay and High Peru, now Bolivia. Uru- 
guay, as we have said, became independent by the war 
with Brazil ; Paraguay, in 1811, declared herself free 
from Spain, but refused to join the United Provinces. 
High Peru withdrew from the confederation in 1825, 
and established itself as the Republic of Bolivia. The 
secession was freely recognized by the congress of the 
Plata, and, barring a boundary dispute, the two coun- 
tries have been on excellent terms ever since. 

39. The United States of Liberia.— The latest 
plagiarism upon the United States of America is the 
African republic of Liberia, founded by the American 
colonization society as a home for negro freedmen. The 
republic is situated on the Grain Coast of Upper 
Guinea, and covers a territory 600 miles long — alcng 
the coast — by 100 miles wide. It has a population of 
over 1,000,000, including 18,000 American freedmen. 
Its form of government was modeled on that of the 
United States. 

40. Unlike the United States Government. — 
The president of Liberia is elected for two years as are 

39. Where is Liberia situated and how is it governed ? 

40 How does its government differ from that of our country , 



42 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

also the members of the house of representatives. The 
senators are chosen for four years. But these differ- 
ences are trivial compared with the changes necessary 
to adapt a complex federative form uf government to a 
league of half civilized tribes, 

41. Origin and History. — The colony of Liberia 
was founded in 1821, and the republic organized and 
left to its own resources in 1847. At first it seemed 
very prosperous, but later reports are by no means en- 
couraging. Says the " Statesman's Year-Book " for 
1882: "The establishment of the repubUc of Liberia 
was virtually an attempt, made by American philanthro- 
pists, to show the capacity of the negro race for self- 
government ; but as such it is admitted to be a failure. 
Prevailing disorder, with absence of all progress and 
civilization, mark the character of the negro republic 
in its more recent history." The government is bank- 
rupt and has paid no interest on its public debt since 
1874. 



CHAPTER VI. 



SWITZERLAND AND GERMANY. 

42. Schweiz or Suisse. — Switzerland is a federal 
republic, comprising twenty-two states or cantons. The 
present constitution, based on the fundamental laws 
passed in 1848, came into force in May, 1874, having 
been adopted by the people at the previous general 
election. 

43. Like the United States Government. — 
The Swiss republic is a true federation of states with 
equal representation in the national senate, or " state 
council," and with full rights of self government Each 



41. What is said of the origin, history and present condition of Liberia ' 

42. What is the government of Switzerland ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 43 

canton elects but two senators, even when, for purposes 
(jf self government, the canton is politically divided. 
Representation in the lower house is apportioned on the 
basis of population, the canton of Berne having twenty- 
live deputies, and that of Zug but one. The chief 
magistracy is vested in a president, and there is a su- 
preme court, " or federal tribunal," which is both the 
interpreter of the constitution, and the high court of 
appeal. But the chief likeness is in the carefulness 
with which the states maintain their individuality, even 
in cases where the local government is merely a mass 
meeting of the electors 

44. Unlike the United States Government. — 
The legislative and executive authority of the Swiss 
government is vested in the congress of both houses, 
called the Federal Assembly. The members of both 
upper and lower houses, (elected every three years), 
besides their positions as legislators, have, as members 
of the joint assembly, executive powers and responsi- 
bilities. These are, according to law, deputed to a 
bundesrath,or federal council,of seven ministers chosen 
every three years by the assembly, and to a president 
and vice president elected by the assembly for the term 
of one year. The assembly also elects the members 
of the federal tribunal of eleven judges, that corres- 
ponds to our supreme court. These hold office for six 
years and decide all matters in dispute between the 
various cantons themselves, between them and the 
federal government, and act in general as a high court 
of appeal. 

45. Origin and History. — The Swiss confedera- 
tion was originally founded in 1308 by the cantons of 



43. Do you think that it was modeled on that of our own country? Why not? 

44. What is the vertical division <f power in the Swiss government ? Wherein 
does this differ from that of our country ? 



44 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwald. In maintaining their 
rights under the German empire, and afterwards in 
gaining and maintaining their independence, the can- 
tons of Switzerland were forced either to league them- 
selves together, or to ally themselves with the sur- 
rounding nations. This, however, was mere alliance, 
not permanent union; but it continued in one shape 
or another until 1798, when it was replaced by the 
Helvetian republic. In 1803, Napoleon I. organized a 
new confederation of nineteen cantons, and this league 
lasted, with various changes in the treaty of union, 
until the civil war of 1847. The number of states had 
before this (1815) been increased to twenty- two by the 
admission of Wallis, Neuchatel and Geneva. 

The history of Switzerland from 1803 to 1848 furn- 
ishes sufficient explanation of the revolution which 
established the union in the place of the confederacy. 
" Sedition, privy conspiracy and rebellion " on the part 
of the minority, arrogance and usurpation on the part 
of the stronger states, and intrigue or open alliance 
with foreign powers, mark this period of the country's 
history. This culminated when, in 1843, ^^"^^ Swiss 
diet refusing to compel Aargau to restore the convents 
she had suppressed, six Roman Catholic cantons 
formed a sonderbund, or offensive and defensive alli- 
ance against the other members of the confederacy. 
This, of course, was secession, but there was no way of 
dealing with it except by war, for which the Protestant 
cantons were not prepared. Then Valais (or WaUis), 
after a bloody contest with her own citizens, joined the 
Sonderbund. The politico-religious question was 
agitating the whole country, when, in 1847, the diet 
ordered the dissolution of the Sonderbund. It was re- 



45. What was the origin of the Swiss confederation ? Narrate its history. 
What change was made in 1847, and why ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 45 

fused, and war followed. The nationalists were victorious, 
and the diet proceeded to form a new and more perfect 
bond of union, which should prevent future troubles of 
this sort. Thus was formed the present "Bundesstaat" 
of Switzerland. 

46. Deutsches Reich. — The German empire con- 
sists of twenty-two monarchical and three republican 
states, not counting Alsace-Lorraine, which is an im- 
perial province and not a true member of the union. 
These German states are united in what they call a 
bundes-staat, or federative state as distinguished from 
the staatenbund or confederation. The central power 
consists of three factors : the presidency, which is 
vested in the German emperor ; the federal council 
(bundesrath), and the federal parliament (reichstag). 
By the constitution, which bears date April 16, 187 1, 
the imperial dignity is vested in the crown of Prussia 
forever, and the laws which govern the succession to 
the Prussian throne are to be applied to the imperial 
succession also. But the executive powers of the em- 
pire do not rest solely with the emperor ; they are 
shared with the chancellor of the empire and the 
bundesrath. The chancellor, who is also president of 
the bundesrath, is declared " responsible " to the cham- 
bers for his acts, but this responsibility is moral, not 
legal, as he cannot be impeached, and no one but the 
emperor can demand his resignation. 

47. Like the United States Government. — 
The points of similarity between the German govern- 
ment and that of the United States are superficial and 
arise from the fact that both are federations. There is 
a general resemblance in the division of powers between 
federal and state government, and in the composition 



46. What is the German empire ? Distinguish between a bundesstaat and a 
Staatenbund. How are the powers of government distributed ? 



46 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

of the federal legislature, the bundesrath being ap- 
pointed by the several states and the reichstag 
elected by universal suffrage, but here the resemblance 
ends. Nor does the dissimilarity arise simply from the 
fact that the government of Germany is monarchical, 
for it is quite as unlike the government of England. 

48. Unlike the United States Government. — 
The German empire makes no attempt to maintain the 
equality of its states even by equal representation in 
her federal senate. Prussia has seventeen members in 
that body, the kingdom of Bavaria has six ; the king- 
doms of Wurtemberg and Saxony, four each ; several of 
the duchies two or three each, and the remainder of the 
states but one each. This difference of representation 
is based partly on population and partly on hereditary 
custom. The preponderance of Prussia is also recog- 
nized in the powers bestowed on her king in his im- 
perial capacity, which virtually give to Prussia the con- 
trol of the army and navy, of the post office and of the 
imperial railroads and telegraphs, and invest her with 
a veto over such legislation as may affect the imperial 
armament or revenues. The chancellor, whose signa- 
ture is necessary to validate all laws (except those with 
regard to the army and navy) was made a creature 
of the emperor. 

In his executive duties the chancellor has always 
acted with the federal council, though he is by no means 
dependent on that body. This council is an unique 
creation. It combines the functions of a legislative 
assembly with those of an executive body. It consists 
of fifty-nine representatives of the states, who are sup- 
posed to act directly on the instructions of their respec- 
tive governments. The delegation from each state 
casts its vote as a unit for or against a measure, accord- 

47. Is the government like that of the United States ? Wherein and why ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 47 

ing to instructions, and in cases where no instructions 
have been given, the vote is considered invalid. But 
it is not competent for the council to examine whether 
the delegation has followed its instructions or not. In 
this way the council passes upon all laws, and upon 
all treaties with foreign powers. The executive duties 
of the council are intrusted to seven committees 
chosen at every session, and continuing in office until 
their successors are elected. Five of these committees 
are chosen by the vote of the council and the remaining 
two, the committee on the army and fortresses, and that 
on the navy, are selected from the council by the em- 
peror. These committees, together with the chancellor- 
ship, fill the place of the ministry in other countries. 

But besides its legislative and executive powers, the 
council has judicial duties. Disputes between the 
states are referred to the council, which elects a court 
then and there to hear and decide the case. The 
council also exercises jurisdiction over consular cases 
and others arising out of treaties with foreign countries; 
and this, together with a special court of appeal in 
commercial and admiralty cases, instituted at Leipzig 
in 1869, supplies the place usually occupied by afederal 
supreme court. 

Besides the federal council, there is a federal 
chancery, a purely executive body, under the direction 
of the chancellor. There is also an office of foreign 
affairs under Prussian management, supervised by a 
special committee appointed by Bavaria, Saxony and 
Wurtemberg. 

The reichstag, which consists of 397 deputies elected 

48. How does the German empire maintain the equality of its states ? How 
is the membership of its federal council apportioned ? How else is the prepon- 
derance of Prussia recognized ? W hut are the powers of the German chancellor? 
What is said of the federal council? Of its committees? Of the federal su- 
preme court? How is the foreign office directed? What is said of the 
reichstag ? 



4S CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

for three years, has the usual legal powers of a chamber 
of deputies ; but, having neither the power to force a 
change of ministry, nor to effect a change of adminis- 
tration thr.ugh a presidential election, the people's 
representatives have little more than a veto power. 
The reichstag can reject bills and refuse appropriations, 
and very often does so , it can also initiate legislation 
but this it seldom does, having no power to co.npel the 
council to accept its bills. 

49. Origin and History. — The Holy Roman 
Empire of the west, or of Germany founded by Char- 
lemagne in 800, A. D., came to an end m 1806 when 
Napoleon Bonaparte established the Rhine Confedera- 
tion. With the fall of Napoleon, the confederation 
dissolved and a new union was attempted. By the 
"federal act," adopted by the congress of the powers 
at Vienna in 18 15, a new confederation was founded 
under the presidency of Austria. This was supple- 
mented by the " final act " adopted at Vienna by the 
representatives of the German states. This act pro- 
claimed the confederation a " corporation of self-de- 
pendent, and, with regard to each other, independent 
states ^ and, with regard to external affairs, a politically 
united power." But the staatenbund thus established 
was a wretched failure, so far as giving Germany either 
peace or uniformity of government was concerned. 
To quote from John Stuart Mill, it " served only to give 
Austria and Prussia the legal right of pouring in their 
troops to assist the local sovereigns in keeping their 
subjects obedient to despotism ; while in regard to ex- 
ternal concerns the bund would have made all Germany 
a dependency of Prussia, if there were no Austria, or 
of Austria if there were no Prussia ; and in the mean- 



49. Describe the r'se and fall of the confederation of the Rhine. Its change 
into the present empire. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 49 

time, each petty prince had little choice but to be a 
partisan, or to intrigue with foreign governments against 
both." 

Attempts to form a more satisfactory union were 
frustrated by the rivalry of Austria and Prussia, and it 
was not until 1866, when Austria, being conquered in 
a war with Prussia, acknowledged the dissolution of 
the German confederation, that the organization of a 
bundesstaat was possible. Then the present German 
union was formed, first under the name of the North 
German Confederation as it included only the North 
German states. During the Franco-Prussian war, the 
federation was extended to all Germany, and all ex- 
cept the Austria-German provinces were included in it. 



CHAPTER VII. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 

50. Oesterrefch-Ungarische Monarchie.~The 

monarchy of Austria-Hungary has, since the year 1867, 
formed a bipartite state, consisting of a German, or 
"Cisleithan" monarchy, and a Magyar, or "Trans- 
leithan" kingdom. That is, it comprises the empire 
of Austria on "this side" of the river Leiih and the 
Kingdom of Hungary "across" the river. Each of 
the two countries has its own parliament, ministers 
and government, while the connecting ties between 
them consist in the person of the hereditary sovereign 
(Franz Josef I), in a common army, navy and diplo- 
matic service, and in the "Delegations," a parliament of 
120 members, one-half of whom represent the legis- 
lature of Austria and the other that of Hungary. The 
sphere of this central government is limited to foreign 

50. Describe the form of government existing in Austria-Hungary ? To what 
is the power of the joint government Hmited ? 



50 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

affairs and war matters, and to the financial business 
incident to these charges. 

51. Like the United States Government. — 
The similarity to the United States is to be looked for, 
not in the union between Austria and Hungary, but in 
the government of Austria itself, which is a true bund- 
esstaat united in the personality of its monarch. The 
desire on the part of the provinces of Austria to main- 
tain the integrity of their institutions while submitting 
to the Austrian crown, resulted in a curious conglom- 
eration of monarchical states under one monarch but 
many constitutions. Thus the imperial office em- 
braces the royal dignity of seven kingdoms, one grand 
duchy, four duchies, one principality, one sovereign 
earldom and one margravate, and though these states 
now have constitutions in which there is an approach 
to uniformity, it is not many years since the royal 
power varied in the different states from absolute des- 
potism to liberal and limited monarchy. In her union 
with this bundesstaat Hungary is granted, not merely 
the rights of self-government under her own constitu- 
tion, but the power and dignity of an equal voice in 
diplomacy and war. The other provinces, though they 
are allowed provincial diets or legislatures, are subject 
to the reichsrath or council of the empire. 

52. Unlike the United States Government. — 
The government of Austria-Hungary is, in its main 
features, totally unlike that of the United States. Aside 
from the bipartite character of the central authority, 
and the consequent third stratum of government from 
an international point of view, the general division 
of powers is very different from that which obtains in 
Anglo-Saxon countries. The executive power rests 

51. Wherein is the government of Austria like that of the United States ! To 
what is this likeness due ? 



IN THE'ORY AND PRACTICE. 51 

with the crown, but the vvork of administration is en- 
trusted to the local authorities. In the same way the 
crown shares its law-making powers with the repre- 
sentatives of the people. The "delegations," which 
consist of 60 delegates from the Austrian reichsrath 
and as many from the Hungarian diet, 20 of each 
being the choice of the upper house and 40 of the lower 
houseof their respective constituencies — meet to form 
a single, independent legislature, but instead of de- 
liberating together they sit in separate chambers and 
only convene for a joint ballot when they do not ar- 
rive at the same conclusion separately. The power 
of the delegations being confined to foreign affairs, the 
common defense, and the collection and expenditure of 
the joint revenues, all other matters are left to the 
diets of the realms. In the Austrian reichsrath, the 
members of the upper house (Herrenhaus) hold their 
seats either by hereditary right, as the princes and 
nobles, or by appointment, as the bishops and life 
senators. The members of the lower house (Abgeord- 
netenhaus), numbering 353, are elected for six years 
by popular suffrage, with a small property qualifica- 
tion. The power of the reichsrath is limited to giving 
or refusing (i) consent to all laws relating to military 
duty, (2) co-operation in legislation on commercial 
matters, and (3) examination of the imperial finances. 
Within these limits either house can initiate measures, 
but the emperor reserves to himself an absolute veto 
power overall legislation. 

Hungary is governed by her king and diet, each pos- 
sessing legislative power. The diet consists of a house 
of magnates, holding their seats by succession or ap- 

52. Note the peculiarities of this government. Do these in any way resemble 
ble the feature of our own government? What are the chief points of differ- 
ence in the case of Austria ? In the case of Hungary ? 



52 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

pointment, and a house of representatives elected 
triennially by the people under a tax-paying qualifica- 
tion. The executive power is entrusted to a responsi- 
ble ministry, consisting of a president (of the council) 
and nine departments. 

53. Origin and History.— The formation of the 
empire of Austria dates back to medieval history, but 
her constitutional liberties are of much more recent 
dat€. The first constitution of Austria originated in an 
imperial diploma, dated October 20, i860, followed by 
an ordinance, or patent, of February 26, 1861, These 
decrees laid the basis of a charter, which, after a suspen- 
sion from 1865 to 1867, was put in force in December, 
1867, with the modification rendered necessary by the 
independence of Hungary. The Hungarian constitu- 
tion rests on the fundamental statutes granted, at long 
intervals, by her king. The chief of these, the " Bulla 
Aurea " of King Andrew II,, was granted in 1222 and 
defined the form of government as an aristocratic, 
monarchy. 

In 1528, the death of the youthful king Louis left the 
throne of Hungary vacant and it was claimed by 
Prince Ferdinand of Austria, who had married Anne, 
the sister of the late king. Having after a civil war 
secured his election by the diet, he was regularly in- 
stalled in the regal office in 1547. The crowns of 
Hungary and Bohemia were at this time united, and 
when, by the abdication of his brother, Charles V., 
Ferdinand became king of Austria, the three kingdoms 
were for the first time united under the house of Habs- 
burg. The monarchy of Hungary continued to be 
elective and the princes of the house of Habsburg who 
succeeded to the throne of Austria, were successively 



53. What is said of the origin of the Austria constitution? Of that of Hun- 
gary? Of the history of their union? Of the nature of the present arrange- 



IN THEORY A^D PRACTICE. S3 

elected to that of Hungary and separately crowned, 
taking their oath to maintain the constitution granted 
by their predecessors. In 1687, the diet of Hungary 
decreed that the throne should thencef( rward be 
hereditary in the male heirs of the house of Habsburg, 
and in 1823 extended the right of succession to the 
female descendants also. Under the rule of the Aus- 
trian princes, the constitution of Hungary was re- 
peatedly infringed or suspended, and when the people 
took up arms in its defence in 1849 ^^ ^^s declared 
forfeited by the rebellion. But this decree was re- 
pealed in i860, and in 1867 the emperor of Austria was 
crowned king of Hungary, taking his oath to maintain 
its ancient constitution. 

The final arrangement was as much for the satisfac- 
tion of the Germans as for that of the Hungarians. 
So long as the Habsburg monarchs governed their pro- 
vinces separately, there was little conflict between pro- 
vinces, but the first attempt to merge them all in one 
empire, roused feelings of jealousy betw-een the Ger- 
mans, Magyars and Slavs, each thinking that the others 
were unduly favored. This was settled by the forma- 
tion of a cisleithan state that the Germans could con- 
trol, and a transleithan one under the government of 
the Magyars, the Slavs being gerrymandered out of 
power in both states. 

54. Sverige och Norge. — In the bipartite state 
of Sweden and Norway we reach the primal stage of 
the federative monarchy. These two states are united 
only in the person of their sovereign, having a com- 
mon diplomatic service, of course, but separate and 
distinct constitutions, and diverse political institutions. 
There is a council of state, representing both countries, 



54. What is the government of Sweden and Norway considered as one king- 
dom ? What, considered separately ? 



54 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

but it is a committee of conference to adjust matters 
relating to the common welfare. Likeness to the Amer- 
ican Union is scarcely perceptible, and the two mem- 
bers of the federation considered as segregate states, 
are constitational monarchies, showing more points of 
resemblance to England than to the United States. 

55. Origin and History.— The union between 
Sweden and Norway came about in this way : By the 
treaty of Kiel, January 14, 1814, Norway was ceded 
to the king of Sweden by the king of Denmark, but the 
Norwegian people did not recognise this cession, and 
declared themselves independent. Sweden proceeding 
to occupy the country by force, the Norwegians yielded, 
and concluded the convention of Moss, by which the 
independence of Norway in the union with Sweden 
was solemnly proclaimed. An extraordinary storthing, 
or constituent assembly (an electoral college), was sum- 
moned, which accepted the terms of union and elected 
King Carl XIII., of Sweden, king of Norway. This 
was in November, 18 14; the following year the Riks- 
act, or charter of union, was promulgated, declaring 
the tie between the realms indissoluble, but without 
prejudice to the separate government, constitution and 
code of laws of either state. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 

56. Unified States. — In beginning the study of uni- 
fied (as opposed to federative) states, it is well to note 
not only the difference between unities and federations, 
but the likeness between unities considered as such. 
The ordinary method of classifying governments as 
monarchical, aristocratic, or democratic, is arbitrary and 



55. What is the history of their union' 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 55 

inadequate, as we may see by a comparison of 
the governments of England and France. It is a 
very rough classification that calls England a 
monarchy and France a democracy. England 
is really an absolute democracy with monarchical 
and aristocratic appendages, and France a limited dem- 
ocracy with aristocratic appendages. The most avail- 
able classification is that which ranges both countries 
as unified states. 

A unified state is one in which the national govern- 
ment is charged with the power and responsibility of 
supervising the administration of public affairs in all 
parts of the country. This is not the case in our own 
country, where the power of the federal government 
within the states is limited. It is true, that in England 
and France local affairs are generally left to the judg- 
ment of the local authorities, but this does not dimin- 
ish the responsibility of the central government, which 
is empowered to overrule the decision of any local 
body in the interest of justice and the public welfare. 

57. Republique Francaise. — The present con- 
stitution bears date Feb. 25, 1875, revised in August, 
1884. It vests the legislative power in the chamber of 
deputies and the senate, and the executive in the pres- 
ident of the republic. Deputies are elected for four 
years by universal suffrage. The senate is composed cf 
300 members, of whom 75 — under the constitution of 
1875 — ^ere to be life senators, and 225 nine-year sen- 
ators, 75 of the latter retiring every third year. Since 
1884, vacancies in life senatorships have been 
filled for nine years only. They are chosen by 
an electoral college, composed of deputies, general 

56. What is the difference between a. unified state and a federation? Give 
examples. 

57. What is the present government of France? Describe its legislative and 
executive departments. 



56 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

councils^ councils of districts, and delegates from the 
communes and municipalities of France. The presi- 
dent is chosen for seven years by a majority vote of 
the senate and chamber of deputies, united in national 
assembly. There is no vice president, and when the 
president dies or resigns, the chambers unite and 
elect a new one — for seven years, and not merely to 
complete the unexpired term. 

58. Origin and History. — After her defeat by 
Germany, in the Franco-Prussian war, France disowned 
her emperor, and proceeded to organize a republic. 
The present constitution was drafted and adopted, in 
1875, by the national assembly elected two years before. 
Many features of the political system are, of course, 
of older date, but the government a-s a whole, was 
modeled after the political ideal of the majority of the 
assembly 

59. United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland. — The united kingdom has no formulated or- 
ganic law. Its constitution comprises the whole body 
of laws as passed by parliament and interpreted by 
the courts. Every parliament, therefore, finds itself 
empowered to amend the constitution, and is restrained 
only by tradition and custom from making radical 
changes. The force of precedent, which guarantees 
the permanence of the British constitution, also invests 
the house of commons with supreme legislative au- 
thority, giving the house of lords a mere veto power. 
Nor is the sovereign, (in practice) empowered to with- 
hold his approval of any measure on which the people 
are really determined. Sir Edward Coke declares that 
"The power and jurisdiction of parliament is so tran- 
scendent and absolute that it cannot be confined, either 
for causes or persons, within any bounds." And re- 

58. What is said of the origin and history of the existing French constitution? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 57 

peating these words, Sir William Blackstone adds that 
parliament is the place where "that absolute despotic 
power, which must in all governments reside some- 
where, is entrusted by the constitution of the king- 
doms." Yet the parliament is not a self-existing body. 
The king alone can summon it, and no parliament can 
assemble of its own accord except in case of the 
death of the sovereign. But the king is by law 
obliged to summon parliament at least once in three 
years, and, since the appropriation of supplies and the 
"mutiny act," — for the punishment of disobedient 
soldiers and sailors are passed for only one year at a 
time, the king is practically obliged to call the assem- 
bly together annually. The right to appropriate 
money, to levy taxes, and grant supplies to the crown, 
is by established usage vested in the houseof commons. 

Hence, though England is a monarchy, the chief 
power in the state rests in her house of representatives. 
This house is composed, according to the act passed 
in the reign of Henry III, of knights of the shire, or 
representatives of counties, of citizens or representa- 
tives of cities, and of burgesses or representatives of 
boroughs. The present apportionment is based on 
this ancient classification and not, as in this country, 
upon population merely. The reform act of 1832 was 
especially designed to remedy the more apparent dis- 
crepancies in this mode of apportionment. The 
franchise is limited by a small property qualification. 

The upper house of parliament consists of peers who 
hold their seats by one of the following titles : (i) by 
hereditary rights; (2) by creation of the sovereign; (3) 
by virtue of office — as the English bishops ; (4) by 
election for life — as the Irish peers; (5) by election 
for duration of parliament — as the Scottish peers. 
In early times the right of peers to attend parliament 
depended in a great measure upon royal favor, but it has 



58 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

long been decided that in England hereditary peer- 
age confers the right to a vote in the upper house. The 
crown is unrestricted in the creation of new peerages 
in England, but in Scotland and Ireland where the 
peers elect their representatives in parliament, the 
crown is, by law or custom, restricted in the exercise 
of this power. In Scotland extinct peerages may be 
revived and forfeited peerages restored, and in Ireland 
a new peerage may be created on the extinction of 
three of those now existing. The powers of parliament 
are politically omnipotent within the United Kingdom 
and its colonies and dependencies ; nor are they weak- 
ened by vertical division. The executive power rests 
in the hands of the ministry, who are not only members 
of parliament, but are responsible to it in every partic- 
ular; and as for judicial power, parliament is recog- 
nized as the highest court of law, from which there is 
no appeal. Nor only this; the queen holds her crown 
by act of parHament, which after the revolution of 1688 
settled the crown on the Protestant heirs of the 
Princess Sophia, of Hanover. And though the sov- 
erign of England is by no means a figure-head in the 
work of government, her prerogatives are those recog- 
nized by parliament, which is also charged with uphold- 
ing them. 

60. Origin and History. — The history of the 
British constitution is bound up with that of parlia- 
ment. This body is the outgrowth of the Witena-ge- 
mot or assembly of wise men whom the Saxon kings 
used to summon about them , The Magna Charta or grei.t 
charter drawn up by the barons in the reign of King John 
established the power of the parliament over taxation 



59. What is said of the British c nstitution? Of the power of parHament? Of 
the house of commons? How and by whom is this house elected? Who form 
the British house of peers? How are the powers of government in the British 
State divided? What is said of the queen's title to her crown? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 59 

and laid the foundation 01 its power. The parHament, 
which consisted of the lords temporal and the lords 
spiritual, was enlarged to include representatives of the 
people, but not until the reign of James I. did the 
house of commons become prominent as a separate 
chamber of parliament. The revolution of 1688 made 
the house of commons the strongest thing in the state, 
and this strength it has maintained and increased by a 
gradual usurpation of the powers formerly wielded by 
the king and the house of peers. It was during this 
period that the principle of ministerial responsibility 
was established. 

Up to 1707 the three kingdoms, England (including 
Wales), Scotland and Ireland, each maintained a par- 
liament, but in May of that year the Scottish parlia- 
ment consented to merge itself in that of England. 
Ireland maintained a separate legislature till the end 
of the century, but January i, 1800, united with her 
sister kini;domsi;i forming a single imperial parliament. 

6r. Comparison. — A comparison between the 
governments of England and France naturally first 
takes account of the executive departments, and the 
principle of ministerial responsibility common to both 
states. In Great Britain the executive power is vested 
nominally in the crown, but practically in a committee 
of ministers, virtually appointed by the house of com- 
mons. Although this committee, or cabinet, is regard- 
ed as an essential part of the political system, it is un- 
known to the law, and its members are never official- 
ly mentioned as such, but always by some other title. 
There is no particular reason for this, it has simply 
grown out of the fiction that the king was the execu- 
tive and that he c )uld not do wrong unless ill-ad- 
vised. Hence the commons claimed the right to 



60 Give the history of the English constitution? Of parliament? Of the 
house of commons? When were the three kingdoms united? 



6o CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

choose the advisers of the crown and to hold these ad- 
visers responsible for the king's malfeasance in office 
Generally speaking, each member of the ministry holds 
some other office in addition to his position as adviser 
to the crown. Thus the prime minister, who is sup- 
posed to select his colleagues, is first lord of the treas- 
ury. The lord chancellor, the lord president of the 
council, the chancellor of the exchequer and the five 
secretaries of state, must be members of the minis- 
try, and the office may be extended to a number of oth- 
er public functionaries and has occasionally been 
held by one who held no other office, but simply lent 
his name and influence to strengthen the ministry. In 
France a similar plan has been attempted, and this 
openly, for the ministers are by the constitution made 
responsible to the chamber of deputies. In practice, 
too, the English example of selecting the cabinet from 
the leading members of the national assembly has been 
carefully followed. The ministers continue to hold 
their seats, join in debates and are questioned in re- 
gard to their policy and plans. But for all this, there 
is a great difference in the working of the systems. 
No French ministry has possessed sufficient influence 
with the chamber to keep its office six months, and 
the chamber seems to grow more and more exacting 
in its demands. The cause of this is to be sought 
in the power of dissolution wielded by the chief magis- 
trates in their respective countries. In England the 
sovereign can dissolve parliament at any time and ap- 
peal to the people at a new election, and hence, the 
English premier holds his factious followers in check. 
In France, the president can dissolve the assembly 

6i. In comparing the governments of England and France, what is first to be 
noted? What is the principle of ministerial responsibility? What are the pe- 
culiarities of English practice in government by responsible ministries? Has 
the experience of France, in adopting this system, been satisfactory? What 
seems to be the reason? To whom is our president's cabinet responsible? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 6l 

only by consent of the senate, which is granted only 
on such terms as make its acceptance entirely out of 
the question. 

It is unnecessary to state that we have nothing of ths 
nature of ministerial responsibility in our own govern- 
ment. In fact the likeness between our political in- 
stitutions and those of England and France is less 
than might — in view of our relations one to another — 
have been expected. 



CHAPTER IX. 



CHILI, PERU, BOLIVIA, AND ECUADOR. 

62. Standard of Comparison. — France, being a 
unified state under a republican form of government, 
is naturally a better standard of comparison for cen- 
tralized republics than a federation like the United 
States could be. Moreover, though nearly all of these 
republics are in America, they were organized by the 
Latin, rather than the German races, and show signs 
of this derivation in their institutions. Yet it must be 
remembered that the United States, rather than France, 
was the model set before the South American revolu- 
tionists, and that hence the more striking features of 
our government were adopted, without much regard 
for their adjustment to existing political institutions. 
This we have already noted with regard to the federa- 
tive system, in its application to nations just released 
from a centralized despotism. 

63. Republica de Chile. — By the constitution 
adopted May 25, 1833, by Chili, the functions of her 
government are formally classified as legislative, ex- 
ecutive, and judicial. The legislative power is vested 

6'j. Why is France a better type of a unified republic than the United States? 
Were these republics modeled on that'of France? 



62 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

in the congress of two chambers. The members of the 
senate are chosen through an electoral college, one 
third of them at each triennial election, to hold of&ce 
for nine years. The chamber of deputies, holding of-, 
fice for three years, is filled by popular suffrage, limit- 
ed only by a small tax-paying qualification. The ex- 
ecutive powers are vested partly in the president, who 
is chosen, through an electoral college, for five years, 
and partly in a " Council of State," an advisory body, 
whose consent is in certain specified cases necessary 
to validate the president's official act. This council 
consists of the five cabinet ministers, one representa- 
tive from the law courts, one from the established 
church (Roman Catholic), one from the army or navy, 
the official head of the treasury, and one ex-minister, 
all named by the president, and of six other members, 
three elected by the senate and three by the house. 
As a still further check upon the president, the coun- 
tersign of the proper secretary is necessary to validate 
his orders to the executive departments. 

But though the executive powers of the government 
are thus weakened by what we call vertical division, /. <f., 
division into co-ordinate departments, they are 'very 
rarely divided horizontally, /. e., into supreme and sub- 
ordmate departments, and this enormously increases 
the executive power of the government. The execu- 
tion of the laws, as well as their interpretation, is, gener- 
ally speaking, entrusted to the appointees (direct or in- 
direct) of the central government. Chili is, or was 
before her recent accession of territory, divided into fif- 
teen provinces, each pf which is subdivided into de- 
partrnents The provinces are governed by intendents, 
appointed by the president for three years; these ofifi- 

63. Note the features of the Chilian government ? What is said of the cen- 
Itraization of power ? Of the division of executive power and responsibility ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 63 

cers appoint and control their governors of departments 
and other ordinates, so that the entire government 
is subject to the party in power. 

64. Comparison. — The government of Chili re- 
sembles that of France in point of centralization as 
well as in many points of detail. It differs from France 
in choosing its president through an electoral college, 
apart from its legislature, and also in having no life 
senatorships. But its chief point of difference from 
France and resemblance to the United States is its defi- 
nite term of office. Each administration (barring a 
revolution) lasts five years, and the cabinet and council 
of state are not responsible as in France to an adverse 
vote of the assembly and can only be displaced by in- 
dividual impeachment. 

65. Origin and History. — Chili first proclaimed 
her independence of Spain in 18 10, but did not suc- 
ceed in establishing it until April, 18 18. Popular dis- 
sension as to the form of government to be adopted in 
the new state, weakened the Chilians and gave the 
Spanish party in Peru a chance to regain its authority 
in Chili. But here the state of Buenos Ayres, which 
had been more successful in its revolution, lent its aid 
to the Chilian patriots, and by defeating the royalist 
army at Chacabuco, February 12, 18 17, drove it from 
the capital and permitted the reassembling of the con- 
gress. The form of government then set up consisted 
of a director and five senators. Under this govern- 
ment and aided by the army of Buenos Ayres under 
Gen. Don Jose de San Martin, the Chilians, after suf- 
fering serious repulses, finally routed the royalist army 
on the plains of Maypo, April5, 1818. They then pro- 
ceeded to carry the war into Peru, inciting that country 

64. Wherein is the government of Chili like that of France ? Wherein like 
that of the United States? 



64 ■ CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

to proclaim its independence July 283 182 1. Not until 
the rule of the Spaniard in South America was broken, 
did Chili feel safe in laying down her arms. 

As a Spanish colony, Chili was governed by a vice- 
roy and audiencia like those described in the case of 
Mexico. After the revolution the form of government 
was that of a director or dictator, with an advisory sen- 
ate. Gen. Don Bernardo O'Higgins, a Chilian by birth 
and an Irishman by descent, was the first director, and 
to his statesmanship no less than to the wisdom and 
valor of Gen. San Martin, the success of the republi- 
can cause is due. Since the adoption of the constitu- 
tion in 1833, the government has been, generally speak- 
ing, well administered, and the country one of the most 
prosperous in the southern hemisphere. 

66. Republica del Peru. — The government of 
Peru is pronounced by its constitution, proclaimed in 
1867, a popular representative republic. The consti- 
tution, apparently modeled on that of the United States, 
divides the functions of government into legislative, 
executive and judicial departments, vesting the legis- 
lative power in a senate and house of representatives, 
the executive in a president, and the judicial in a sys- 
tem of courts which, being the product of Latin juris- 
prudence, naturally bears more resemblance to the 
French judiciary than to that of the United States. 
Peru is divided — or was before the recent conquest by 
Chili — into twenty-one departments and these into 
sixty-one provinces. The senators, two from each de- 
partment, are elected by the council of the department. 
The representatives are also chosen indirectly, being 
elected by a provincial electoral college composed of rep- 

65. Give the history of the formation of the Chilian state ? 

66. What ib the nature of the Peruvian constitution? Upon what was it 
modeled? What is said of its courts ? Of its local government ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 65 

resentatives of the parishes. The president is chosen 
for four years by a direct vote of the people. He is 
obliged to exercise his executive functions through the 
members of his cabinet, whom, however, he changes 
at his pleasure. The local government is carried on 
by prefects, sub- prefects and governors, ruling over de- 
partment, province and district respectively, and each 
apix)inted by, and responsible to, his immediate su- 
perior. 

The constitution of Peru may be considered sus- 
p)ended at present owing to the disorganized state of the 
countr)'- Yet its forms are observed, and its violations 
probably excused on the plea that "war powers" are 
always implied in the constitution of a free state- 

67. Comparison. — The government of Peru is in 
general form modeled on that of our country, but in de- 
tail and in practice it is quite unlike our system of gov- 
ernment. Its judiciary and local political system might 
have been borrowed from France, but like Chili, it has, 
in theor)', at least, adopted the principle of a fixed term 
of administration and executive independence of the 
legislature. 

68. Origin and History. — The republic of Peru, 
one of the oldest of the Spanish colonies in America, 
issued its declaration of independence July 28, 182 1, 
but it was not till after a war protracted till 1824, that 
the country gained its actual freedom from Spanish 
rule. The constitution proclaimed in 1828, as well as 
that now existing which was promulgated August 31, 
1867, was modeled on the consritution of the United 
States. Its working has been seriously interfered with 



What are its p ints of reseniblance to the government of France? To 
" the United States? 

What is said of the history of this state? 



66 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

by revolution and anarchy, so there has been no chance 
for the peaceful development of a satisfactory system 
of govern Uient. 

69. Republica Boliviana,— The constitution of 
Bolivia vests the executive authority in a president 
elected by the popular vote, for four years, and the 
legislative power in a congress of two chambers, elect- 
ed by universal suffrage, and in a third house, the cham- 
ber of censors, the members of which are appointed for 
life. The president is assisted in his executive func- 
tions by a president of the council or vice president, 
appointed by himself, and by a ministry of four depart- 
ments. The system of government is more like that 
of France than that of Peru. 

70. Origin and History,— -The constitution of 
the republic, which bears date August 25, 1826, was 
drawn up by Gen. Bolivar, the Liberator, whose name 
was adapted for the new state, previously a province 
of the La Plata, and known by the name of High (or 
upper) Peru. " It was a compound of all possible po- 
litical institutions, ancient ard modern," writes Mr. 
Hassaurek. *' Bolivar very modestly said of it, that it 
combined the political wisdom of all ages and nations. 
It teemed with visionary crotchets, and contained but 
one sound principle — that of religious toleration — 
which was subsequently abandoned." Important 
modifications were made in this constitution in 1828, 
1831, and 1863. 

"The fundamental law of the republic," says the 
Statesman's Year Book, " ordering the regular election 
of the chief executive every four years, has seldom been 
carried out since the presidency of Grand Marshal 

69. What are the chief features of the government of BoHvia ? 

70. By whom was the constitution of this state framed ? What is said of its 
nature? Of its history? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 67 

Santa Cruz, who ruled Bolivia from May, 1828, till his 
death, January 20, 1839. Subsequently the supreme 
power was almost invariably seized by some successful 
commander, who, proclaimed by the troops, instead of 
chosen by the people, was compelled to protect his of- 
fice by armed force against military rivals. From 1867 
to 1870 there was an almost uninterrupted civil war, 
which reached its height in 1869, when Gen. Melgartju 
for a time assumed the government after the execution 
of a rival candidate. Gen. Belzu." The next president 
was Gen. Ballivian, who died in 1874, and was succeed- 
ed by Dr. Thomas Frias, who ruled till the outbreak of 
a new insurrection. May 4, 1876. Gen. Daza then be- 
came president, only to be himself deposed in May, 
1880 His successor was Dr. N. Campero. 

71. Republica del Ecuador. — The present con- 
stitution of Ecuador was adopted in 1861. By it the 
legislative power is given to a senate and house of 
representatives, both elected by universal suffrage for 
two years, the term of office of one-half of each house 
expiring annually. Each of the ten provinces elects 
two senators and one representative for every 30,000 
inhabitants, or fraction over 15,000. The executive is 
vested in a president elected every four years. He is 
obliged, in certain cases, to obtain the consent of the 
council of state, consisting of the vice president, the 
cabinet of three ministers and three persons appointed 
by congress. The judicial power is entrusted to a sys- 
tem of judges elected by congress. 

72. Comparison. — As will be seen, the govern- 
ment of Ecuador is quite like our own, in the vertical 
division of powers. The executive powers of the cen- 
tral government are, however, so complete and far- 
reaching, and the usurpations on the part of the chief 

71. To whom are the powers of government in Ecuador entrusted? 



68 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

magistrate so frequent, that, in spite of the system of 
co-ordinate powers, we are told, there is but one power 
in the state— that of the man who for the time has se- 
cured the obedience of the soldiery. 

73. Origin and History.— The repubhc of Ecua- 
dor was constituted May II, 1830, in consequence of 
a civil war which separated the members of the Central 
American free state, founded by B livar on the rums 
of the Spanish colony and the kingdom of New Grana- 
da. The history of the state is marked by the same 
alternation of despotism and anarchy, that characteriz- 
es the record of other Spanish-American states. The 
dictatorship of President Gabriel Garcia Moreno, which 
lasted from 1861 to 1875, furnished the nearest ap- 
proach to a permanent government. Moreno was as- 
sassinated, and Antonio Borrero succeeded him, only 
to be overthrown by Don Jose de Vientemilla, who 
claimed to be elected president in 1876, and who, July 
10, 1878, had himself proclaimed dictator for an un- 
limited period. He was deposed in 1883. 

CHAPTER X, 



CENTRAL AMERICA. 

74. Central American Republics. — The case 

of the Central American republics forms a suggestive 
contrast on the one hand to that of the United States, 
and on the other to that of Mexico. Our country is a 
federation of co-equal states, with strictly defined 
rights, which they jealously defend. Mexico is a fed- 
eration of states which have yielded to the encroach- 

72, wherein does the government resemble our own? Wherein does it 
differ ? 

73, Give the origin and history of the state of Ecuador ? 

74, What is said of the Central American repubhcs ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 69 

ments of the central government. Central America is 
the disorganized remnant of a federation, the compon- 
ent states of which were unable either to maintain their 
individuality in the union, or to reconcile themselves to 
absorption in a centralized government. The five in- 
dependent republics of Central An;erica are Guatema- 
la, Honduras, Nicaragua, San Salvador, and Costa Rica. 

75. Republica de Guatemala. — The existing 
constitution of Guatemala was proclaimed October 2, 
1859. By its terms the legislative power is vested in a 
single chamber of fifty-two deputies, ard in a council 
of state chosen by this chamber, with the approval of 
the president. The powers of government are very 
centralized, making the will of the president virtually 
supreme, during his administration of four years. 

76. Republica del Honduras, — The organic law 
of the republic of Honduras is a charter proclaimed in 
1865. It establishes a legislature of two houses, a 
senate of seven members and a chamber of deputies of 
fourteen rhembers. Elections for two years occur an- 
nually, one-half (as nearly as possible) of each house 
retiring in that order. The executive authority rests 
with a president (elected for four years), subject to the 
supervision of a council of state, consisting of two min- 
isters appointed by the president, one senator elected 
by the joint vote of the houses of congress, and the 
judge of the supreme court. This council has legisla- 
tive authority during the adjournment of congress, sub- 
ject to revision on the reassembling of that body. The 
president has an absolute veto on all legislation. 

77. Republica de Nicaragua. — The Nicaraguan 
constitution, proclaimed August 29. 1858, establishes a 
senate of ten members, two from each department, and 

75. How is Guatemala governed ? 

76. Describe the government of Honduras? ' 



70 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

a house of eleven members, one for every 20,000 in- 
habitants, both to be elected by popular suffrage, the 
former for six and the latter for four years. '1 he presi- 
dent, who is also elected for four years, exercises his 
functions through a cabinet of responsible ministers, 
composed of the four departments of finance, foreign 
affairs, public instruction, and war and marine. The 
president is made ineligible for a second consecutive 
term of offict^, and the same prohibition is applied to 
members of congress, who are restricted to two terms. 
Still another check is placed on the legislative power 
in requiring a two-thirds vote, and the approval of the 
president, to enact any law. 

78. Republica de San Salvador. — The republic 
of San Salvador is governed nominally under a consti- 
tution proclaimed in March, 1864, but undergoing 
frequent alterations through internecine war. The law- 
making power is entrusted to a senate of twelve mem- 
bers, elected one-half every second year, and a house 
of representatives containing twenty-four members 
elected annually. The presidential term was first fixed 
at six years, and in 1867 shortened to four years, but 
perennial revolution has regularly interfered with the 
peaceful completion < f either term of office. The 
president's cabinet consists of two ministers, one hav 
ing charge of the interior, war and finance departments, 
and the other of those of foreign affairs and public in- 
struction. Universal manhood suffrage is established 
except in case of domestic servants, temporarily disfran- 
chised, and persons in the employ of foreign powers, 
who are permanently disqualified. A property qualifi- 
cation is, however, required, both of the executive and 
the members of the legislature. 

77, What political system is established by the Nicaraguan constitution ? 

78. What is said of the government of San Salvador ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 71 

79. Republica de Costa Rica. — Barring a strong 
tendency to revolution, tlie republic of Costa Rica is 
governed under a constitution bearing date December 
22, 187 1. Its congress of one chamber — called the 
Congreso Constitucional — is chosen by electoral assem- 
blies representing the people, in single electoral dis- 
tricts, and the president is elected in the same manner. 
Members of congress are chosen for four years, but as 
one-half retire every other year, elections occur bien- 
nially. The president, who is also chosen for four 
years, is assisted in his duties by two vice presidents, 
a"id these are elected annually by the congress, over 
which they alternately preside. The supreme judicial 
power is vested in a high court of justice, which is 
formed by the union of two appellate courts. The 
legal code is an amalgamation of Spanish and French 
law. 

80. Comparison. — The form of government ex- 
isting in Central America is the Spanish-American 
adaptation of the government designed by the founders 
of our republic. It is very much like the political sys- 
tem which obtains in South America, differing from 
that of our country in the centralization of executive 
power, and from France in administration or fixed- 
term principle, and in the general disposition shown 
to make the president independent of the favor of the 
legislature. The council of state, though similar to 
the French ministry in sharing executive responsibility, 
differs from it in being practically independent of the 
legislature, and often in being composed almost en- 
tirely of the personal adherents of the president him- 
self. 



79. How does the constitution of Costa Rica differ from that of other Cen- 
tral American Republics ? 

80. Compare these repubHcs with the United States. With France? What 
is said of the council of state ? 



72 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

8i. History of Central American Politics. — 

Central America remained under Spanish rule from 
the time of its conquest in 1525 until 1830. All par- 
ties joined in the revolutionary movement, the royalists 
in the hope of establishing a monarchy and the liberals 
with the intention of forming a republican confederacy 
after the model of the United States. The liberals 
proved the stronger, but the royalists, unwilling to sub- 
mit, asked the assistance of the Mexican Emperor 
Iturbide. A Mexican army invaded Guatemala and 
the fugitive republican congress could only retaliate 
by decreeing the annexation of Central America to the 
United States. The shortness of Iturbide's career re- 
lieved the country from the necessity of choosing be- 
tween annexa.tion to Mexico and annexation to the 
United States, but the precedent was set, and thereaf- 
ter each faction appealed to some foreign ally against 
the rule of its opponents. For forty years England 
and the United States exercised a quasi-suzerainty 
over Central America through influence over, and 
championship of, the contending factions. This for- 
eign interference culminated in the filibustering expe- 
dition led by William Walker in 1856. This was a 
band of volunteers in response to a frantic appeal to the 
United States by some faction, hard pressed by its op- 
ponents. After Walker's defeat, good sense impelled 
foreign countries to refrain from further intermed- 
dling. 

The -first form of government established by the 
Central American republics was a federation. This 
was dissolved in 1837-39, since which several attempts 
have been made to renew it, but in vain. Short-lived 
federations have been formed by Nicaragua, San Sal- 

8x. Give the history of Central American politics. Of the attempt to estab- 
lish a federation ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 73 

vador and Honduras, chief of which was the federa- 
tion of 1849, formed at the instance of the United 
States minister acting under instructions from Wash- 
ington. D. C, But the administration of President 
Taylor giving place to that of President Fillmore, a new 
diplomatic agent was sent, who, in agreement with the 
English consul general, refused to recognize the fed- 
eration, and insisted on being received by the republic 
of Nicaragua. In 1872 another international confer- 
ence was called to discuss the question of union, but 
the languid indifference shown by Nicaragua is said to 
have discouraged it. Guatemala, which has always 
been opposed to entering a bundesstaat, has of late 
years repeatedly urged the formation of a staatenbund, 
which should give the republics uniform foreign repres- 
entation, a joint telegraph and postal system, and ren- 
der possible many important reforms. 

Specifically,the republics have had a very similar po- 
litical history, in which the tendency to armed revolu- 
tion has prevented the growth of any abiding political 
institutions. A staatenbund which would guarantee 
the different states against revolutions, would be a de- 
cided step towards reform. 



CHAPTER XI. 



PARAGUAY, URUGUAY, AND THE WEST INDIAN REPUBLICS. 

82. Republica del Paraguay. — Until within 
the last twelve years, Paraguay was styled a republic 
by courtesy only; since, whatever name she assumed, 
her government was that of an absolute though elective 
monarchy. The present constitution, proclaimed No- 
vember 25, 1870, was modeled on that of the Argentine 
Confederation, and vests the legislative power in a sen- 



74 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

ate and house of representatives, and the executive in 
a president elected ior a term of six years. 

83. Origin and History.— The state of Paraguay 
gained its independence from Spanish rule in 181 1, 
and at the same time separated from the viceroyalty 
of the La Plata. A congress assembled the following 
year and confided the administration of affairs to two 
consuls, Yegros and Francia. In 1814, the last-named 
consul, Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez Francia, had him- 
self proclaimed president, first for three years, and 
afterward for life. His government was autocratic 
and lasted until his death in 1840. It was succeeded 
by the joint consulate of Carlo Antonio Lopez and 
Marianna Roque Alonzo, nephews of the late presi- 
dent. Three years later the form of executive was 
again changed and Lopez was elected president for 
ten years. He was re-elected in 1854 for a similar 
term, but died in 1862 and was succeeded by his son, 
whom he had appointed vice president. Don Fran- 
cisco Solano Lopez continued in power until 1865, 
when he began war with the surrounding nations of 
Brazil, the Argentine Confederation and Uruguay. 
The war lasted for five years, when March i, 1870, 
Lopez was defeated and killed at the battle of Aquida- 
ban, and the Paraguayan dictatorship came to an end. 

Of the old constitution of Paraguay, Thomas J. Page, 
U. S. N., writes in 1853: "Paraguay had a constitution 
when Francia was made dictator. She has one now, 
perhaps, for I could learn nothing officially. But that 
avails nothing. The constitution is interpreted, the 
judiciary, elections and congresses are alike controlled, 
by the president, who governs with an authority as un- 

82. What is said of the government of Paraguay? Of the present constitu- 
tion of that state? 

83. Give the histuy of the Paraguayan republic. What was the effect of its 
former constitution? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 75 

questioned as if he were supreme dictator. The 
commandantes of each jurisdiccion are appointed by 
him. These officers, in turn, nominate the delegates 
for congress, allowing a certain representation to each 
partido; and the congress chooses the president, who 
is thus elected /<?;' se." 

84. Republica Oriental del Uruguay. — The 
republic of Uruguay is governed under a charter 
proclaimed July 18, 1831. By its terms, the legislative 
power is intrusted to a parliamentof two houses, which 
meets in annual session extending from February 15, 
to the end of June. The upper house consists often 
members and the lower house of 39 When the parlia- 
ment is not in session its powers are wielded by a 
permanent committee of two senators and five repre- 
sentatives. The executive power is given by the con- 
stitution to a president elected for four years. There 
is a vice president who, as in this country, is elected 
forthe same term and is ex-officio president of the senate, 
but has no other political duty. The president is as- 
sisted by a cabinet of four secretaries, or heads of 
departments. In theory, the government seems mod- 
eled on that of the United States. 

85. Origin and History. — By reference to 
Section 38, it will be seen that Uruguay, under the 
name of the Banda Oriental, or eastern frontier, was at 
first included in the viceroyalty of the La Plata; that 
it was claimed and occupied by Brazil, and that after 
a war between La Plata and Brazil the independence 
of Uruguay was decreed by both states as a condition 
of peace. Its existence has been a checkered one, 
being distracted by wars both foreign and civil. Its 
chief industry — its only industry, in fact — isthatofcat- 

84. To whom does the Uruguayan charter entrust the powers ol govern- 
ment? 

85. What is said of the history of this state? 



76 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

tie raising, and the country is in a very primitive stage 
of development. 

86. West India Republics.— Leaving the 
main land of America we note on an island in the 
West Indies two republics, which, if the form of gov- 
ernment were strictly the product of the people, might 
be expected to present a unique study. The aborigi- 
nal race has well nigh disappeared in Hayti, but the 
Frencn, Spanish and negro races have from the first 
contended for the mastery of the island. But the out- 
ward semblance of a form of government is easily 
transplanted, and the real political institutions, despot- 
ism and anarchy — usually the product of race conflict 
— are very much the same wherever we find them. 

87. Republique de Hayti. — The republic of 
Hayti is governed, nominally, under a constitution 
proclaimed June 14, 1867. By this the law making 
power is vested in a national assembly of two houses, 
the senate and house of commons. The niembers of 
the commons are chosen by a direct vote of the people 
for a term of three years, and these, when elected, 
choose the senators (who hold office for two years) 
from a list of eligible candidates presented by the elec- 
toral colleges. The executive power is "in the hands 
of a president, who, according to the constitution, must 
be elected by the people, but who, in recent years, has 
generally been chosen by the national assembly, and 
in some instances by the troops or by party delegates 
acting as representatives of the people." Barring a 
revolution, the president holds office for four years. 
He is assisted in his administrative duties by four sec- 
retaries or heads of departments. 

88. Republica Dominica. — The republic of 



86. By what races were the West Indian republican states founded? What 
is said of their nature? 

87. What is the character of the government of Hayti? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 77 

San Domingo still retains its original constitution of 
1844, but this was modified previous to re- adoption, in 
1865, after the Spanish occupation. Like Haytiit has 
a congress of two chambers, but these — siyled respect- 
ively the Consego C^onservador and the Tribunado — 
are chosen by indirect election, with restricted suffrage, 
for a term of six years. The president is also chosen, 
for the same term, by indirect election, and the gov- 
ernment furthers differs from that of Hayti in being 
less centralized, its provinces maintaining councils 
with limited legislative power. The president is as- 
sisted by a cabinet of five secretaries, chosen as in this 
country by himself with the approval of the upper 
house of congress. 

89. Origin and History. — The island now best 
known as San Domingo, was, when discovered by Col- 
umbus in 1492, called by its natives Hayti, or the 
mountainous land ; but the discoverer preferred to call 
it Hispaniola, or Little Spain. The name San Do- 
mingo comes from the city of that name founded 
August 4, 1434, and named in honor of the day, or, 
some think, in honor of the father of Columbus. The 
island was first colonized by the Spaniards, and about 
the middle of the seventeenth century, by the French 
buccaneers also. The question of boundary was the 
cause of almost incessant warfare between the colonies 
until, by the treaty of Ryswick, the west part of the 
island was ceded to the French. During the French 
revolution a triple contest arose in the colony between 
whites, mulattoes and blacks. This extended to all 
parts of the island, and resulted in 180 1, in the supre- 
macy of the negro element "under Toussaint I'Ouver- 
ture, who then proclaimed the island independent. Cap- 
tured by the French, Toussaint ended his life in pris- 
on atBesancon. His successor, Jean Jaques Dessalines, 

88. How is San Domingo governed? 



78 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

defeated the French and made himself first governor, 
and afterward emperor of the island. Shot by his own 
troops in 1806, he was succeeded by Petion and Chris- 
tophe, who divided the sovereignty of the island be- 
tween themselves until 1820, when it was united in the 
person of their successor Gen. Jean Pierre Boyer. 
Meanwhile Spain had maintained ahold at San Domin- 
go city and had on the fall of Napoleon obtained a 
nominal claim to the French part of the island. Gen. 
Boyer extinguished this by the capture of San Domin- 
go, but some years later weakly conceded the validity 
of the French claim to indemnity, to purchase which he 
pledged the credit of the island for 150,000,000 francs. 
This led in 1843 to the secession of the Spanish part 
of the island, which disowned any liability to France 
and refused to participate in its payment. This was 
in 1843. The new state assumed the name of Domin- 
ica, the old state retaining that of Hayti, the aboriginal 
name for the island, which had been revived by Des- 
sablncs. 

The subsequent experience of these republics was, 
and still continues to be, disheartening. Distracted by 
wars and civil feuds, the people have made little prog- 
ress in the arts of peace and in the development of the 
resources of the island. 

Naturally but little political progress has been made. 
The people have become more free, the life presidency 
with almost despotic power, possessed by Petion and 
Boyer, having given way to more democratic institu- 
tions ; but this freedom has led to idleness and lawless- 
ness rather than peace and prosperity. 



89. Give the origin and political history of these republics. Note the effect 
of the government on the development of the country. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 79 

CHAPTER XII. 



ORANGE FREE STATE, SAN MARINO, ANDORRA, BELGIUM, 
AND BRAZIL. 

go. Orange Free State. — The republic of the 
Orange Free State is situated in bouth Africa, and is 
bordered as follows: On the west and northwest by 
Griquiland West and Betchuanaland ; on the north 
and northwest bv the Transvaal republic; on the east 
by Natal, and on the south by Basutol»ind and the 
Cape Colony. The constitution of the state vests the 
legislative power in a Volksraad or assembly of fifty- 
two members, who are elected by the people for a term 
of four years. As one-half the assembly retires every 
second year, biennial elections are necessary. The ex- 
ecutive power is entrusted to a president elected by the 
suffrage of burghers for a term of five years. He is as- 
sisted by an executive council, of which the landdrost 
(or district chief magistrate) of Bloemfontein, and the 
government secretaries, are ex-officio members; and 
three other members are elected,every third year, by 
the Volksraad. The landdrosts, who are both exec- 
utive and judicial officers, form the judiciary of the 
republic. 

91. Origin and History. — The Orange Free State 
was settled by Dutch Boers from the Cape, who framed 
a popular pystem of government. In 1845 England 
asserted her right over the land, and in 1848 put down 
a rebellion of the Boers and established a resident 
minister at Bloemfontein. But the possession was 
found so unsatisfactory and expensive that in Febru- 
ary, 1854. the protectorate was withdrawn and the in- 

90. Where is the Orange (River) Free state ? How is it governed ? 

91. What is the history of this stale ? 



8o CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

dependence of the republic established. Since this 
time the Free State has had numerous boundary dis- 
putes with the native tribes, but has otherwise been 
peaceful and prosperous. 

92- Republica di San Marino. — The republic of 
San Marino comprises an area of 17 square miles, 
which is wholly enclosed within the kingdom of Italy, 
and contains 8,000 inhabitants. The legislative power 
of this little republic is vested in a " Princely and Sov- 
ereign Grand Council," composed of sixty members, 
who are elected for life, with power to fill vacancies — 
the nobles, citizens and rural proprietors being repre- 
sented in equal proportions. The executive power is 
wielded by two captains-regent, who are chosen by the 
council every six months. There is also a kind of sen- 
ate composed of twelve members of the council, of 
which two-thirds are annually renewed. The captains- 
regent are assisted by two secretaries of state, one for 
foreign affairs and one for the interior. For local ad- 
ministration there is an officer styled the syndic, who 
is appointed in each commune or village. 

93. Origin and History. — San Marino was founded 
by St. Marinus, in the fourth century. Situated in an al- 
most inaccessible valley on Mt. Titanus, it has always 
maintained a degree of independence, though it has 
often been obliged to submit to a foreign protectorate. 
Up to the end of the fourteenth century the republic 
was governed by the Arringo, an assembly composed 
of the heads of families. By this body the council of 
sixty was established, and by similar adaptations, the 
unwritten constitution of the state has been gradually 
developed. 

94. Republic of Andorra. — In a valley of the 
eastern Pyrenees is situated another little free state, 

92. What is the government of the state of San Marino? 

93. \^ hat is said of the origin of its constitution? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. Si 

which has preserved its independence from ancient 
times, simply by inaccessibility. The state of Andor- 
ra, covering a territory of 300 square miles, and now- 
containing a population variously estimated at from 
4,000 to 12,000, was declared independent by Charle- 
magne, in reward for services rendered him by its in- 
habitants, when he was marching against the Moors. 
It still remains free except for the traditionary rights 
of the bishop of Urgel, which, though they interfere 
with the autonomy of the state, detract little from its 
sovereignty. The republic is governed by a sovereign 
council of twenty-four members elected by the people, 
and by a syndic or chief executive officer, chosen for 
life, by the vote of the council. 

95. Royaume de Belgique. — According to the 
charter of 1831, Belgium is " a constitutional, represen- 
tative and hereditary monarchy." The royal succes- 
sion is in the direct male line in the order of primo- 
geniture. The king is invested with a degree of legis- 
lative power, as well as with full executive and veto 
powers, but his acts must be countersigned by minis- 
ters who are "responsible "to the parliament. This 
parliament consists of a senate and chamber of repre- 
sentatives, both elected by a direct vote of the people, 
the former for eight and the latter for four years. The 
number of representatives is apportioned according to 
population, and cannot exceed one member for every 
40,000 inhabitants; the senate membership is one- 
half that of the house, and is apportioned on the same 
basis. The right of suffrage is restricted by a taxpay- 
ing qualification. The lower house is granted the par- 
liamentary initiative and preliuiinary vote in all cases 
relating to the receipts and expenses of the state and 

94. Describe the republic of Andorra, 

95. What is the natnre of the Belgian constitution? To whom are the 
duties of government entrusted? 



82 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the contingent of the army, and the proceedings of the 
senate, during the time the house of representatives is 
not sitting, are invahd. Both houses retire one-half at 
a time, which brings a deputy election every two years, 
and a senatorial election every four years, but the king 
has power to dissolve both houses at any time, either 
simultaneously or separately, and in such case an elec- 
tion for a full house must be held within two months. 

96. Comparison.— The government of Belgium 
v/as evidently modeled on that of England, but it is, 
in theory at least, more democratic. The powers of 
the sovereign are restricted as in England by the min- 
isterial responsibility pruiciple, though the individual 
responsibility of each minister for the acts countersign- 
ed by him, tends to make the ministry less coherent. 
There is no aristocratic principle in the government of 
Belgium, and but one hereditary member of parliament, 
the crown prince, who, if of age, is ex-officio a senator. 
Except for its property qualification, the government 
may be reckoned more democratic than our own, since 
the direct election of the senate, and even the power 
of dissolution granted to the king, tend to make the 
will of the people more directly effective. 

97. Origin and History. — Belgium secured her 
independence ofHolland by rebellion in 1830-31; having 
framed her constitution, she selected as king Prince 
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. The development of the po- 
litical institutions has been affected somewhat by Ijhe 
question of religious versus secular education, aud the 
consequent conflicts betv/een the Progressionists and 
the UlLramontan<^s. 



96. How does the Belgian constitution compare with that of England? 
With that of the United States ? 

97. What is said of its origin ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 83 

98. Imperio do Brazil. — The constitution of 
Brazil, framed under the direction of Dom Pedro 1, 
was adopted March 25, 1824, and revised in 1834 li 
establishes a monarchical, constitutional and represen- 
tative government, the powers of which are divided 
into four classes, the legislative, the executive, the 
judicial and the "moderating" power. The last named 
seems little more than the usual royal prerogative. It 
is vested exclusively in the emperor, and consists of 
the nomination of senators and ministers of state, the 
convocation and prorogation of the general assembly, 
and the dissolution of the chamber of deputies. Also 
the power to give or withhold his approval of public 
laws — the veto power in short — which is suspensory 
only, for if a measure passes three successive parlia- 
ments, it becomes a law without the imperial sanction. 
The pardoning power and the right to supervise the 
provincial councils during the recess of the chambers, 
are also mentioned in this class. All these powers are 
exercised by monarchs in other countries as pertaining 
to their office. 

The executive power is also vested in the emperor, 
but it must be exercised through the medium of his 
ministers, who are responsible, individually and collect- 
ively, to the assembly. In addition to the ministry, 
there is a council of state, the members of which are 
appointed for life. This council is to be consulted on 
all matters of serious import, and its members may be 
impeached for "counsel willfully tending to the preju- 
dice of the state." (The council of state was estab- 
lished in 1841, and is an imitation partly of the English 
privy council and partly of the Spanish colonial 
andiencia^ 

The general legislative assembly of the empire con- 
sists of two houses— a senate and chamber of 
deputies. Senators, who number 58, and hold office 



84 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

for life, are nominated by provincial electoral colleges 
in triple lists, from which the emperor or his ministers 
make the appointments. The chamber of deputies, 
numbering 122, is elected by a direct vote of the people 
every four years, or oftener in case of dissolution. 

99. Comparison. — The government of Brazil 
bears strong resemblance to that of Belgium and Eng- 
land. Nor does it differ widely, except in the heredi- 
tary title of its executive and in the life tenure of its 
senators, from the government of the United States. 
The personal rights of citizens and the right of local 
self government, are especially protected, and the ex- 
ample of France shows that there is nothing in the 
so-called moderating power inconsistent with the 
nature of a republic. 

100. Origin and History. — The revolt of Brazil 
from the dominion of Portugal came about in this 
way: The Portuguese royal family, which in Novem- 
ber, 1807, removed its court from Lisbon to Rio 
Janeiro, re-embarked for Europe in April,i82i, leaving 
in Brazil a seemingly loyal and contented people 
under the regency of Dom Pedro d'Alcantara, the 
crown prince of Portugal But the Portuguese cortes 
was jealous of the privileges granted Brazil and par- 
ticularly jealous of the state maintained by the re- 
gent, and soon abolished the royal court at Rio. 
Janeiro, and ordered the prince back to Portugal. 
Dom Pedro at first seemed inclined to obey, 
but the Brazilians objected, and, declaring their 
iadependence, proclaimed the prince constitutional 
emperor. Portugal could not or at least did not fight 
to retain its supremacy, so the revolution was easily 
accomplished. But scarcely was the constitution of 

98. How are the powers of government divided by the Brazilian constitution? 
Whafis the " moderating" power? To whom are the other powers entrusted? 

99. How does the government of Brazil compare with that of other countries? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 85 

the new empire framed than the rule of the emperor 
became unpopular. Popular agitation culminated, 
in 1 83 1, in an insurrection in the capital which 
demanded the reinstallment of a ministry just dis- 
missed, on the plea that it "had the confidence of the 
people." To this Dom Pedro I. would not consent, 
and, seeing no other way out of his trouble, abdicated 
in favor of his son, Dom Pedro II., a lad of six years. 
Dom Pedro I. has been styled the "Washington of 
Brazil;" though his private life was not as stainless as 
that of our national hero, his share in founding the 
empire entitles him to the name of Father of his Coun- 
try. The policy pursued by his son has been 
more deferential to the popular will , and some consti- 
tutional changes have been made in accord- 
ance with this policy. The latest amendment 
was in 1881, when the election of deputies was made 
direct, instead of, as formerly, through an electoral 
college. Brazil has suffered little, either from misgov- 
ernment or anarchy. Popular agitation has always 
been in favor of the constitution and the emperor, con- 
tenting itself with the overthrow of an unpopular 
ministry. 

CHAPTER XIII. 



PORTUGAL, SPAIN, THE NETHERLANDS AND DENMARK. 

loi. Reino de Portugal de Algarves. — The 

constitution of Portugal and Brazil, being framed by 
the same race at almost the same time, naturally resem- 
ble each other. The fundamental law of Portugal is 
the "carta constitutional" granted by King Pedro II. in 
1826, after his highness' return from Brazil. It recog- 

100, Under what circumstances did Brazil secure her independence? What- 
is said of Dom Pedro I's reign ? Of that of Dom Pedro U ? 



85 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

nizes four powers in the state, legislative, judiclalj 
executive and moderating, the two last named being 
vested in the sovereign. Executive responsibility, how- 
ever, rests entirely with the ministry, which is depen- 
dent on the cjprice of the majority in the lower house 
of parliament. There is also a council of state, but 
this is an unimportant factor, sharing neither power nor 
responsibility. The parliament is in two houses, the 
chamber of deputies and the house of peers. The 
peers are, generally speaking, appointed by the king 
for life, but the constitution recognizes an hereditary 
peerage, pertaining to certain families. This was 
partly aboHshed by act of May 27, 1864, which re- 
quired a yearly income of $25,000 and an academical 
degree of any one succeeding to the peerage. The 
members of the second chamber are chosen by popu- 
lar suffrage, with a property qualification. The 
representation is apportioned by districts, continental 
Portugal returning ninety-four,and Madeira and the 
Azores five. 

102. Origin and History.— The agitation which 
ended in the establishment of a constitutional and 
representative government in Portugal was begun by 
Don Bernardo de Sepulveda, at Oporto, in 1820. A 
parliament was summoned, which the king, returning 
from Brazil the following year, very wisely recognized. 
This cortes framed the existing constitution, which was 
ratified and promulgated April 29, 1826. 

Free institutions were not, however, so easily estab- 
lished. Don Miguel, a younger son of Joan II, — the 
crown prince having remained in Brazil— claimed the 
inheritance by divine right, refusing to acknowledge 
the cortes. The wars between his adherents and the 



loi. What are the provisions of the Portuguese constitution? How do 
Portuguese institutions compare with those of Brazil? 
103. What was the origin of the constitution of Portugal ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 87 

constitutional party which declared in favor of Don 
Miguel's sister Maria, distracted the kingdom for some 
years. The constitutionalists triumphed, but the strug- 
gle between the crown and parliament continued up to 
the accession of King Luis I, in 1861. The right of 
parliament to control the executive seems at length to 
be definitely established. 

103. Lias Espanas. — The present organic law of 
Spain enacts that the state shall be a constitutional 
monarchy, the executive resting in the king and 
the law-making power "in the cortes with the king." 
The cortes are composed of a senate and congress 
equal in authority. There are three classes of senators 
— senators by hereditary right, senators for life to the 
number of 100, appointed by the crown, and 130 sen- 
ators elected by the corporations of state and by the 
largest payers of contributions. Elective senators 
must be renewed by one-half every five years, and by 
totality every time the king dissolves that part of the 
cortes. The hereditary senators are the sons of the 
king and crown prince, peers in possession of $12,000 
a year, captain-generals in the army and admirals in 
the navy, and other high officials of church or state. 
The members of the lower house are elected every 
five years by the people through electoral juntas, the 
representation beingone for every 40,000 free inhabitants 
paying $25 yearly taxes. The king may dissolve either 
senate or congress, but in such case the new assembly 
must convene within three months. The king and 
each of the chambers can take the initiative in framing 
laws. The king's person is inviolable, but his decrees 
must be signed by his ministers who are responsible 
both in English and American fashion. The king's 
veto is absolute. 

103. What is the government of Spain? In whom are its powers vested? 
What are the respective powers of its king and cortes? 



g8 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

104. Origin and History. — Constitutional goy- 
ernment in Spain is a matter of the present century. 
The people got their first ideas of constitutional free- 
dom daring the Napoleonic conquest, and the attempts 
of King Ferdinand VII to restore the Bourbon despot- 
ism were resisted by the cortes. The corrupt reign of 
Queen Isabella, who came to the throne a mere child in 
1833 ,was marked by the triumphs of the representa- 
tive principle and the revolution of 1868 which dethroned 
Isabella and established the republic, was but a natural 
outgrowth of Spanish liberalism. The reaction which 
restored Alfonso, re-established many remnants of the 
despotic rule, but these are gradually being removed 
by the pressure of popular opinion. Nor does the 
king — despite his descent from the Bourbon race who 
" never learn and never forget," — seem opposed to the 
progress of freedom. The rise of the Constitutional 
Liberals to power in 188 r was promoted by his act, and 
the recent (1882) movement to restore the constitu- 
tion of 1869 — eliminating all legal recognition of 
"divine right" from the constitution — receives at least 
his amiable toleration. 

105, Koningrijk der Nederlanden. — By the 
fundamental laws of the kingdom of Holland (other- 
wise known as the Netherlands) the entire law-making 
power is entrusted to the States-general, an assembly 
of two houses. The upper house consists of 39 mem- 
bers, elected by the provincial councils, from among 
the most highly assessed inhabitants. The members 
of the house represent the people, being chosen at the 
rate of one deputy for every 45,000 of population. 
Election is by ballot and the suffrage is restricted by 
a small tax-paying qualification. Every two years 



_ 104. How old is constitutional government in Spain ? What is said of its 
rise and progress ? 



IN THEORY AND PRaCTICE. 89 

one-half the members of the lower house retire by 
rotation and every three years one-third of the upper 
house do likewise. The lower house alone has the in- 
itiative of new laws, which the senate may approve 
or reject, but may not amend. The king has absolute 
veto power, but it is seldom, if ever, brought into prac- 
tice. 

The local administration is entrusted to the provin- 
cial and communal councils, which are chosen by the 
same class that elect the national chamber of depu- 
ties. The king, or his official representative, has full 
control of the executive power, both in national and 
local affairs. There is the usual provision of local and 
national courts for the administration of justice. 

106. Comparison. — The political institutions of 
Holland resemble th-^se of England andBelgmm, even 
as they differ decidedly from those of Spain or Germany. 
The seat of power is in the chamber of deputies, 
over whose acts the senate and king exercise only a 
moderating power. Even the ministry — virtually cre- 
ated by the house — is debarred from active participa- 
tion in debate, though it is conceded a "deliberative 
voice" in legislation. 

107. Origin and History. — Before the 14th cen- 
tury there were in Holland no general political institu- 
tions. The count was all powerful; over the country 
districts he set his bailiffs and over the village his 
local judges. In the 13th century, when any great 
matter had to be discussed in a city, all citizens were 
summoned by the ringing of the great bell to the pub- 
lic square, and there decided the question by democratic 
vote. Justice was administered by a man's peers, ac- 
cording to the Saxon code in the east, the Frisian in 

105. Describe the constitution of Holland. To whom are the powers of 
government entrusted ? 

106. What countries have political institutions similar to those of Holland ? 



go CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the north and the Frankish or Salian in the south- 
each district having its several customs. In time, the 
dependence of the counts on the towns for supplies 
led to concessions to the councils of burgomasters, 
and the material prosperity consequent on the exten- 
sion of commerce in the 15th and i6th centuries, 
prompted the cities to demand a voice in the govern- 
ment. After an extended struggle with the nobles and 
the dukes of the house of Burgundy, the burgomasters 
extorted from the Duchess Mary the "Great Privil- 
ege" of March, 1477, which gave the States-general, 
representing cities and provinces, a voice in the govern- 
ment and full control of taxation. This was the be- 
ginning of the Dutch constitution; its development 
was by no means peaceful, but the "Great Privilege" 
was thenceforth the basis of the burgomasters' claims 
to power. 

The present constitution was formed in 18 14, after 
the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte, vt^ho had annexed the 
country to France. It was thoroughly revised and re- 
proclaimed Nov. 3, 1848, and catching the spirit of 
that revolutionary year, it contemplates one of the 
most democratic of monarchies. 

108. Kongeriget Danmark.— The Danish con- 
stitution vests the executive power in the king and his 
responsible ministers, and the right of making laws in 
the rigsdag or diet. The rigsdag consists of a lands- 
thing or senate, and a folkething, or house of com- 
mons. Of the 66 senators, 12 are nominated for life 
by the crown, and the rest chosen for a term of eight 
years, by electoral bodies composed partly of the largest 
tax-payers in the country districts partly of deputies of 
the largest tax-payers of the cities and partly of deputies 



107, What is said of the origin and history of representative goverpment in 
Holland ? What of that of the present constitution ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 91 

representing the entire voting population. The folke- 
thing consists of 102 members elected directly by uni- 
versal suffrage, for a term of three years. The gener- 
al'arrangement of the political system is like that of 
Belgium. The local government is administered as in 
France, partly by appointees of the crown, and partly 
by representatives of the people. 

109. Origin and History. — In early times the 
government of Denmark was far from despotic; the 
succession to the crown was even elective until the 
revolution of 1660. At that time, the crown, by ally- 
ing itself with the people as against the nobility, great- 
ly increased its powers and established a despotism 
that lasted until 1849. In that year a royal charter 
was granted, which, though afterward recalled, was 
modified and re-proclaimed in July, 1866, and forms the 
constitution of Denmark at present writing. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



ITALY, GREECE AND THE SLAVONIC KINGDOMS. 

iio. Regno d' Italia. — According to the constitu- 
tion of the kingdom of Italy, the executive power be- 
longs exclusively to the king, and the legislative power 
is shared equally by king and parliament. But as the 
king administers his government through a ministry 
subject to the majority vote of the chamber of depu- 
ties, there is little chance for the exercise of despotism. 
The parliament consists of two chambers — a senate 
comprising the adult princes of the royal house, and 
as many life senators, "over forty years of age, and em- 
inent or wealthy,' ' as the king sees fit to appoint — also a 
chamber of deputies elected by the votes of the citi- 

108. Who form the government of Denmark? 
109. What is said of the early history of the Danish constitution ? 



92 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

zens who are twenty-five years of age and pay taxes to 
the amount ^12.50 per year. The duration of a parli- 
ament is five years, but the king has power to dissolve 
the lower house at any time, provided he summons a 
new parliament within four months. New laws may be 
proposed by either house, or by the king, but appro- 
priation bills must have their origin in the lower house. 
The form of government resembles that of Spain. 

Ill Origin and History. — The present con- 
stitution of Italy is an expansion of the "fundamental 
law" of the kingdom of Sardinia, granted by King 
Charges Albert to his subjects March 4, 1 848. Previous to 
this Sardinia, like most other Italian states, had been 
under a despotism of two centuries' duration. The 
Nipoleonic conquest afforded a brief interval of con- 
siituMonal government, and in 1820, the success of the 
Spanish revolution encouraged similar movements on 
the part of the citizens of Naples and Piedmont. But 
the "holy alliance" of the European powers decreed 
the subjection of Italian liberties, and it was not until 
1848 that any of the states obtained a constitution. 
The concessions of Charles Albert of Sardinia were in 
such marked contrast to the action of other Italian 
sovereigns, who subdued their revolutionary subjects 
by the help of Austria and France, that thereafter the 
royal house of Sardinia became the nucleus of Italian 
liberalism. By bargain withFra ce, Sardinia obtained 
Lombardy as part of the spoils of the Franco-Aus- 
trian war of 1859. The Garibaldian revolution of 
i860 in Sicily and Naples had for its object union with 
Sardinia, and in 1866 Venetia, freed from Austria by the 
success of Prussia in the war of that year, also entered 

no. What are the respective powers of the Italian king and parliament? 
How is the parliament elected ? 

III. Trace the progress of Italian unification. What was the origin of the 
existing constitution ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 93 

the union, and Vittorio Emanuele II. of Sardinia be- 
came king of Italy. The annexation oi the Papal 
States by royal decree, October 9, 1870, completed the 
unification of Italy. Nor was this a mere federation, for 
the country is under one legislature, and each of its 
sixty-nine provinces is governed by a prefect appointed 
by the national adaiinistration. 

1 12. Kingdom of the Hellenes. — The govern- 
ment of Greece is a constitutional monarchy with a strict 
division of executive and legislative powers, which are, 
respectively, entrusted to the king and the parliament 
of one chamber, called the Boule. The executive pow- 
er is, however, exercised through a responsible ministry 
vvhich, enjoying the confidence of both king and com- 
mons, both frames and administers the laws. The 
Boule is elected by manhood suffrage every four years, 
and meets annually for not less than three or nor more 
thai six months. Every measure must, before adop- 
tion, be discussed and voted article by article thrice 
and on three separate days. Even this did not, in 
the mind of the framers of the constitution, secure 
sufficient deliberation, for they provided for a council 
(jf state empowered to criticise and amend all bills 
previous to their final passage. The council of state 
was found cumbersome and embarrassingtothe ministry, 
and hence the government of late years has omitted 
the appointment of councillors, and allowed that body 
to lapse from lack of membership. The parliament of 
a single chamber distinguishes the Grecian government 
from that of most other countries. It is noteworthy, 
perhaps, that John Stuart Mill, in his work on repre- 
sentative government, suggests the substitution of a 
deliberative council for the customary senate or upper 
house of parliament. 



T12. What is the 2:overnment of Greece ? What is said of the division of 
power? What of the parliament ? Of the council of state ? 



94 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

113. Origin and History. — Greece, a province 
of the Turkish empire since the beginning of the six- 
teenth century, gained its independence in the insur- 
rection of 1821-29 and was by the treaty of London 
in 1830 declared a kingdom under the protection of 
England, France and Russia. Prince Otho of Bavaria 
was placed on the throne. He reigned for twenty-nine 
years, but gave so little satisfaction that his subjects 
rose in October, 1862, and expelled him. They then, 
with the consent of the protecting powers, elected as 
their king George, the second son of Prince Chris- 
tian of Sleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, now 
King Christian IX of Denmark, 

114. Knjazestvo Srbija. — By the constitution of 
Servia,the executive power is vested in the crown, assist- 
ed by a council of seven ministers, who are individually 
and collectively responsible to the nation. The legis- 
lative auihoiityis exercised by two independent bodies, 
the "Soviet," or senate, and the "Skuptschina,"or 
assembly. The former consists of seventeen mem- 
J^ers appointed by the crown from each of the seven- 
teen departments into which the country is divided. 
The members of the assembly are elected by the peo- 
ple at the rate of one deputy to every 2.000 electors. 
The suffrage is extended to all men over twenty-one 
years of age, who pay direct taxes, and are neither do- 
mestic servants nor gypsies. There is a third legis- 
lative body, the Grand Skuptschina, which is a special 
assembly, four times as numerous as the ordinary as- 
sembly, but chosen by the same electors. This body 
is summoned whenever any question of great import- 
ance is to be settled. It is empowered to elect a 

113. \Vhat was the origin of the Grecian kingdom? How did Otho become 
king? How did George succeed him? 

114. How are the powers of government apportioned in the Servian state ? 
How is the legislature elected ? What is the Grand Skuptschina ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 95 

king in case of vacancy and, even in extreme cases, 
to create such a vacancy by dethroning the king. 

115. Origin and History. — The present king- 
dom of Servia has been established during the present 
century. From the fourteenth century to the nine- 
teenth Servia was governed by a pasha appointed by 
the sultan. From 1804 to 1829 there was a succes- 
sion of revolts, led by Kara (or black) George and 
Milos Todorovitsch Obrenovic, the founder of the 
present dynasty. By the terms of the treaty signed 
September 14, 1829, Milos was acknowledged prince 
of Servia, and by a subsequent firman of the Sultan, 
dated August 15, 1830, the dignity was made hered- 
itary in his family. By the treaty of Paris, signed in 
1856, after the Crimean war, Servia was allowed her 
claims to self-government, but she remained tributary 
to the Turkish porte until after the Russo-Turkish 
war in 1877. Her complete independence was es- 
tablished by the treaty of Berlin, July 13, 1878. In 
March, 1882, the prince of Servia at the solicitation of 
his assembly, assumed the title of king, which, how- 
ever, did not include any increase of power. 

1 1 6. Moldo-Wallachia, or Roumania — The 
Roumanian constitution vests the legislative authority 
in a parliament of two houses, the members of which 
are chosen by the people in indirect election. The 
executive power is entrusted to the king, but must be 
exercised through a council of seven responsible min- 
isters. The royal veto is suspensive only, so that the 
government is on the whole a liberal one, bearing no 
little resemblance to that of Belgium. 

The local government of the thirty-one provinces, 
consists of a governor appointed by the crown, and a 

115. Give the history of the kingdom of Servia. 

n6. What is said of the national government o Roumania? What of 
its local government I 



96 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

civil tribunal, a judicial body with executive powers. 

117. Origin and History. — The Roumanians are 
decended from the ancient Dacians, and the Roman 
colonies sent into the country after its conquest by 
the Emperor Trajan. With the decline of Rome, the 
country became independent, but was again con- 
quered and over run by the Magyars of the west. The 
race is, therefore, not purely Slavonic, though its lan- 
guage is easily understood by the Servians. Con- 
quered by the Turks after the subjection of Servia, the 
people of Moldavia and Wallachia, the two provinces 
now united under the name of Roumania were al- 
lowed to retain their right of . local self government, 
until the reign of the Sultan Achmed in the eighteenth 
century, when the sultans began to sell the office of 
"hospodar"of the northern provinces, to the highest 
bidder. The conflict between Russia and Turkey, re- 
leased the Moldo-Wallachians from this thraldom, 
and the Crimean war left them tributary to the porte, 
but otherwise free. On the outbreak of the Russo- 
Turkish war of 1877, Roumania repudiated her alle- 
giance to the sultan, and joined forces with Russia. 

The union of Wallachia and Moldavia under the 
name of Roumania, was proclaimed December 23, 1861, 
the hospodar assuming the title of Prince Alexander 
John I. A revolution in 1866 forced the prince to ab- 
dicate, and a constituent assembly which framed the 
existing constitution, elected Prince Karl of Hohen- 
zoUern-Sigmaringen. The prince was crowned king, 
March 27, 1881. 

117. When and how did Roumania secure its independence? When was 
the present dynasty founded ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 97 

CHARTER XV. 



MONTENEGRO, RUSSIA AND ISLAM. 

118. Despotisms. — A government in which the 
people have no voice in the framing and execution of 
the laws, is called a despotism. Despotisms are of 
two kinds, patriarchal and hierarchal, the one claim- 
ing to be the father of his people, and the other the 
head of a theocracy. The claims of all despots to di- 
vine appointment or approval, may confuse this distinc- 
tion, but cannot do away with it. Still another kind 
of despotism is the dictatorship sometimes established 
in free states. This, however, is usually temporary 
only. 

Of the three kinds, the patriarchal despotism is 
necessarily the most autocratic. The despot by elec- 
tion is subject, as a last resort, to the will of the peo- 
ple. A hierarch is subject to the traditions of his 
church as interpreted by its priests. A patriarch, 
though he may employ religion to support his authority, 
is logically above religious duty, and rules less as the 
vicegerent of the Most High than as His earthly coun- 
terpart. 

119. Tchernagora or Montenegro. — Monte- 
negro furnishes us with a good instance of a pa- 
triarchal despotism. There is no constitution, but 
all political power is recognized as centering in and 
emanatmg from *the person of the hospodar. He 
hears all cases and decides them according to his own 
moral standard. Previous to 1868 he made no dis- 
tinction between public and private finance, possess- 
ing all the revenues of the state and being responsible 
for its debts. Since 1868, in accordance with the de- 



118. What is a despotism ? Describe the diflferent kinds of despotism ? 



98 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

cision of a mass meeting of his subjects, he has kept 
separate accounts. 

120, Origin and History. — ^Montenegro has 
risen from a bishopric of the Servian Empire, pro- 
tected by inaccessibility from the conquering Turk. 
From 1697 to 185 1 the vladikas, or prince-bishops, 
exercised both temporal and spiritual authority, but 
Danilo j[., succeeding to power, resigned the office of 
bishop and assumed the title of hospodar, or prince. 

i2i. Empire of all the Russias.— Russia fur- 
nishes a second example of patriarchal despotism. 
The whole legislative, executive and judicial power is 
united in the emperor, whose will alone is law. The 
only rules acknowledged as binding on the emperor 
are those of imperial succession, which is by regular 
descent, by the right of primogeniture, with preference 
of male over female heirs, subject to the proviso that 
the royal family must belong to the Greek church. 

In his duties of administration, the emperor is as- 
sisted by a cabinet of four ministers and under these 
by four separate boards or councils. The first, the 
council of the empire, advises the emperor with regard 
to legislation, civil administration, and finance; the 
second, the directing senate, forms the supreme court 
of appeal, subject, of course, to the approval of the em- 
peror; the third, the holy synod, superintends the re- 
ligious affairs of the empire, while the fourth, the 
council of ministers, comprises the treads of the execu- 
tive departments. 

The local administration differs in the different 
provinces, the government having always allowed an- 

119. What is the nature of the government of Montenegro ? 

120. What is said of its history ? 

I2T. Describe the government of Russia. How is the local government 
administered ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 99 

nexed countries to retain such of their laws and 
institutions as were compatible with the autocracy. 
The empire is divided into provmces and these are 
subdivided into districts. The governors of provinces 
and districts are advised and assisted by zcmstvos, or 
boards elected by the people. These boards have 
neither legislative nor administrative authority, but 
they have the recognized right to advise the governor 
and to petition the imperial government against him, 
hence they are not without influence. 

122. Origin and History. The government of 
Russia has been despotic from the earliest ages. The 
growth of the empire has been the extension of its 
authority rather than a progress toward liberalism. 
Alexander II did much tointroduce the democratic prin- 
ciple in provincial and district government, the rural 
villages having already a democratic system ap- 
proaching almost to communism. But, however these 
reforms may in the future affect the political system, 
they have not as yet been recognized as a basis of 
popular rights. 

123. bsmanli Vilayet, or the Ottoman Em- 
pire. — The despotic governments of Islam are based 
upon the precepts of the Koran. State and church 
are allied, though not identical, and the head of the state 
is usually the acknowledged head of the church. The 
will of the monarch is absolute when not contrary to the 
teachings of the prophet — as expounded by the ulejna 
(00-lema — wise men) of the church. 'The frequent 
forcible depositions of Moslem rulers at the instance 
of their chief priests, show that they are practically 
held responsible for their use of power. In the gov- 
ernment of the Ottoman empire, — subject to the teach- 
ings of the Koran and the will of the sultan, the law 

122. What is said of history of this government? 



lOO CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

consists of the codified decrees of the sultans from the 
founding of the dynasty. The legislative and executive 
authority is exercised in the name of the sultan, by 
two high digniaries, the grand vizier, and the sheik- 
ul-Islam — the former the embodiment of the ex- 
ecutive power, and the latter the director of ecclesi- 
astic affairs and the legal adviser of the sultan. The 
sheik's "opinion," or authoritative interpretation of the 
Koran, is asked in all important cases, but as he is 
subject to the caprice of his sovereign, this gives him 
little independent personal power. These two officers, 
with the heads of executive departments, form the 
privy council, or imperial divan, also known as the 
sublime porte. Hence the term "porte"' is often used 
as synonymous with the Turkish government. There 
is also a council of state with advisory powers, but be- 
yond adding three members to the divan it has little 
influence. It contains, however, the germ of a repre- 
sentative council of the empire, and may hereafter be- 
come the basis of liberal institutions. 

The local administration resembles that of Russia. 
The whole of the empire is divided into vilayets, or 
general governments; these are divided into sandjaks 
or provinces and subdivided into kazas or districts. 
The administrative officers are in every case appointed 
by the porte, but the lower in rank are under the di- 
rection of their superior officer, who is held responsi- 
ble for them. Representative councils are elected to 
oversee and advise concerning the governments of the 
different grades, and in village affairs the people are 
allowed cumplete self-government. The judiciary ^s 
composed of a graded system of courts of the Sheri, 
appointed from the ulema by the general government, 
and of legal tribunals elected by the people in each 
province and district. The courts of the Sheri are ad- 
ministered by Moslems only and are intended to try 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. loi 

cases between persons of that faith. The elective ju- 
diciary represents Christians as well as Mohammedans 
and has jurisdiction in disputes between the Christian 
and Moslem subjects of the porte as well as in cases in 
which Christians alone are interested. The law is, how- 
ever, generally speaking, the same; and the distinction of 
creed is not strictly kept. Appeal is made to the courts 
of the province, and from these to the sheik ul-Islam 
or to the supreme court of justice established in 1868 at 
Constantinople. 

124. Origin and History.— The Turks claim de- 
scent from Turk, who, according to their tradition, was 
the oldest son of Japhet. They come of the same 
primitive stock as the Tartars and the Mongols, and 
there seems little doubt that the Yakuts of the LenaVal- 
ley represent the same race. The first Turkish empire in 
Asia Minor was founded in the tenth century by Seljuk, 
who came from Turkestan This empire v/as crushed by 
the Tartar hordes led by Genghis Khan in the thirteenth 
century, but was almost immediately reinforced by the 
migration of the Oghouz Turks from Kiiorassan, under 
Ertoghrul, whose son Othman founded in 1299 the 
present empire. The Turk=> as conquerors of Asia 
Minor and lower Europe, had no easy task in framing 
a system of government to adjust itself to many and 
diverse races and creeds. The plan of the government 
was smiply that of an extended military command, in 
which all below the sultan were accounted equal, ex- 
cept as they found favor in the sultan's sight. There 
IS no aristocracy in Islam, and though certain provinces 
will submit only to their hereditary chiefs, there is the- 

♦T,'^^',y?°P ^^^' ^""^ Moslem governments based ? What check is placed on 
tne wm of the sovereign ? V/hat is the porte ? What is said of the local ad- 
ministration ? Of th e courts of law ? 

124. What is said of the origin of the Turks as a people? What of the 
tounding of the empire? Of the development of its institutions? 



I02 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

oretically no hereditary right in opposition to the sul- 
tan's will. The appointments of the porte are given to 
those who can rule and will support the administra- 
tion with force if necessary. The entire government 
rests on a basis of force, which is by no means incon- 
sistent with the precepts of the Koran, 

125, Arjana, Eran, or Persia.— The form of 
government m Persia is similar to mat of Turkey, being 
based on the Koran and the necessity of ruling a tur- 
bulent, half civilized people. The shah claims im- 
plicit obedience as the vicegerent of the Prophet Mo- 
hammed, and his commands are seconded by the priests 
when considered in accordance with the scripture. 
The executive pov/er is administered by a divan, for- 
merly consisting of but two officers, the grand vizier 
and lord treasurer, but in recent times comprising the 
heads of seven executive departments, as in European 
countries. 

As in Turkey the local goverr.ment is administered by 
appointees of the shah, except in the villages where 
the people choose a chief magistrate. 

The administration of justice is less complex than 
in Turkey, since the Persians are nearly all Moslems 
of the Shi-ite sect. The dissenters comprise Ar- 
menian or Nestorian Christians, vv^ho are treated with 
tolerance, and Jews and Guebres (fire worshipers), who 
are oppressed. 

126. Origin and History. — Ancient Persia was 
illustrious at the very earliest period of authentic his 
tory, but this glory declined after the defeat of Xerxes, 
and ended with the conquest of Alexander. Persia 
rose again in the third century of our own era and un- 
til the seventh century enjoyed great prosperity. Then 



125, What is the form of government m Persia ? How does it compare with 
that of Turkey ? 

126. What is the history of the Persian government? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 103 

it was conquered by the armies of Mohammed, and an 
Arab dynasty was founded, which gave way in the 
eleventh century, to the rule of the Seljukian Turk. 
This was followed by the invasions of Genghis Khan 
and Tamerlane, after which Persia, under the Sofee dy- 
nasty, became powerful, and in 1739 invaded India. 
The present dynasty was founded m 1794, and under 
it Persia has formed diplomatic relations with other 
kingdoms, abandoning her ancient policy of excluding 
foreigners. 

127. Maghrib-el-Aksa, or Morocco. — Like 
Persia, Morocco is governed by a despotism, which, 
while acknowledging the authority of the Koran, re- 
jects the Ottoman kaliphate. But the despotism is 
more absolute, for the sultan of Morocco is the only 
authorized interpreter of the Koran and the com- 
mentary thereon by Sidi Beccari, which is the Moor's 
text-book of faith. Neither does the sultan deign to 
have a grand vizier or other official representative, but 
admininisters the jjovernment through his favorites 
among the courtiers who surround his person. 

128. Origin and History. — The kingdom of Mo- 
rocco was established in the eleventh century by Abu- 
Beker, the first of the house of Almoravides. The 
present dynasty was founded in the seventeenth cen- 
tury by Mulai Shereef-el-Fileli. 

129. Wilayat, or Afghanistan. — The govern- 
ment of Afghanistan is a personal despotism, main- 
tained by force, and justified, so far as seems necessary, 
by reference to the principles of the Koran. The 
government resembles that of Turkey, but differs 
from it somewhat in admitting the hereditary principle. 
The people are grouped in tribes, the sardars (01 

127. How is Morocco e^verned? 

128. What is said of its history? 

129. What is the government of Afghanistan ? 



i©4 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

princes) of which are often strong enough to defy the 
ameer, or lord of the land. 

130. Origin and History.— The Afghans claim 
descent from the ten tribes ot Israel, and there seems 
little reason to deny the claim. From the eighth cen- 
tury to the nineteenth the Afghans maintained almost 
constant warfare with the Tartars on the one hand, 
and the Hindoos on the other. During the present 
century the country has been twice invaded by the 
British, and the ameership has been three times the 
cause of civil war, so that there has been little oppor- 
tunity for the growth of peaceful political institutions. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

CHINA, JAPAN AND SIAM. 

131. Chung Kwo or the Middle Kingdom. — 

Besides the despotism.s of Islam, there are several other 
quasi-religious despotisms, in which state and church 
are closely united. In the Chinese empire, state and 
church are identical, the emperor being the high priest 
and the state officials the only priesthood attached to 
the Confucian or state religion. As the religion of Confu- 
cius is a form of ancestry worship, so the government 
it authorizes is modeled on the government of the fam- 
ily. Here we find the union of the patriarchal and theo- 
cratic systems. Theoretically a most absolute despot- 
ism,— for the Hwangii^ or emperor, is declared the 
highest legislative and executive power, without limit 
or control — China has still a constitution, called the 
"collected regulations of the great pure dynasty." 
These regulations are recognized as binding upon the 
emperor and though he himself is subject to no re- 



130. What is the history of this people ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 105 

straint, public opinion would prevent his servants vio- 
lating the regulations even in obedience to the royal 
will. 

The administration of the empire is under the su- 
preme direction of the ''Interior Council Chamber," 
comprising four members, two of Tartar and two of 
Chinese origin, besides two assistants from the Han- 
lin, or Great College, who have to see that nothing is 
done contrary to the civil and religious laws, contained 
in the " regulations " and in the sacred books of Con- 
fucius. Under the council chamber are six boards of 
government, somewhat similar to the committees 
which, in the German federal council, take the place 
of the usual secretaries of state. Each board is presid- 
ed over by a Tartar and a Chinese. 

Independent of the government and theoretically 
above the central administration, is the Tu-chah-yuen, 
or board of pubic censors. It consists of from forty 
to fifty members, under two presidents, one of Tartar 
and the other of Chinese, birth. By the ancient cus- 
tom of the empire, all the members of this board are 
privileged to present any remonstrance to the sover- 
eign. One censor must be present at the meetings 
of each of the six government boards. 

There exists no law of hereditary succession to the 
throne, but it is left to each sovereign to appoint his 
successor from the members of the royal family. Jf 
an emperor dies without designating his successor, the 
choice is exercised by his widow or by his next of kin, 
acting in the name of the family. 

The administrative machinery of the government is 
very perfect in its organization. In each of the eighteen 
provinces is an imperial representative as governor with 

131. Describe the relation between state and church in China. Also the 
machinery of go'fernment. What is the board of censors? The law of succes- 
sion? The local government? 



io6 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

almost despotic power over the life and propeity of 
citizens, bat carefully restrained in his management 
of the government interests. Even the appointment 
of his subordinates is regulated by a system of com- 
petitive examinations, making the government one of 
the njost l)ureaucratic on the face of the globe. 

132. Origin and Historyo — The Chinese govern- 
ment is, as above stated, an elaboration of the principle 
of filial duty. It refers, for authority, to the writings 
of Confucius (on Con fut-se) who in the sixth century 
before Christ, compiled the ethical traditions of the 
race. 

The present dynasty was founded by the Manchu 
Tartars who conquered China in 1644, and, usurping 
the government, established as a concession to their 
subjects, the present system of duplicate presidencies 
of the official boards. 

133. Sho Koku, Nippon or Japan.— The gov- 
ernment of Japan resembles that ol China, from which, 
indeed, it is derived. The power of the mikado, or 
emperor is absolute and unlimited in temporal as well 
as spiritual affairs, but the government is administered 
through an executive cabinet modeled on that of the 
French empire. There are also two appointed repre- 
sentative bodies v/ith advisory powers— the sa-in or 
senate, of thirty members, and the sho-in or council of 
of state, of an unlimited number, both nominated by 
the mikado and consulted by him at his pleasure. A 
parliament of deputies selected by the provincial gov- 
ernments was created in 1869, but was soon dissolved 
ard has not since been summoned. 

The council of state, though formed on the model of 
that of the French empire, is a much more important 



32 Upon what is the Chinese government based.^ When was the dynasty 
9 



founded? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 107 

body. It is charged with the duty of framing the laws, 
and forms the Left of the Great Council — the Center be- 
ing the premier and his advisers, and the Right the 
heads of executive departments. This Great Coun- 
cil administers the government, subject, of course, to 
the will of the autocraiic mikado. 

For the purpose of local government, Japan is di- 
vided into thirty- six ken aiid three/z^, the latter differ- 
ing from the former only in name. These provmces 
are ruled like those of Russia; by a governor appointed 
by the national government, Over these governors, 
provincial assemblies, elected by the people, exercise a 
supervisory power. The districts, into which the pro- 
vinces are subdivided, are governed in similar man- 
ner. 

Early in November, 1881, the Mikado Mutsu Hito 
issued a proclamation stating that he intended in the 
twenty-third year of his reign (1890) to "summon 
deputies of the people with a view to the establishment 
of a representative assembly, which will be the fulfil- 
ment of the intention entertained from the beginning," 
and at an early date to establish a constitutional form 
of government. Thus a limited constitutional mon- 
archy will, ere many years, take the place of a despot- 
ism that has existed for t^wenty-nve centuries. 

134. Origin ana History.— The ancient Japan- 
ese government, as well as the religion upon which it 
was based, was derived from China by way of Corea. 
In it, the mikado (or ''Venerable one") was supreme, 
possessing full pov/er over the life and property of his 
subjects and exacting the personal service of every 
man one day in twelve, by w.y of taxes. This system 
was gradually undermined by the military power of 

133. Whence was the g:overnment of Japan derived? How is it being re- 
modeled? Describe the national government as it now exists. The local gov- 
ernment. What changes are proposed by the mikado? 



io8 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the daimios, or feudal nobles, who lodged all the tem- 
poral power in the hands of an aristocracy of 266 
chiefs, headed by the tycoon, and supported by an 
army of 500,000 men — leaving the mikado spiritual 
governor only. The government of the, daimios was 
tyrannical and oppressive, and this led in 1868 to a 
revolution which reinstated the temporal power of the 
mikado, reducing the nobles to the position of simple 
tenants of the estates in their hereditary possession 
Since his restoration, the mikado has used his authority 
to liberalize the empire, as a preparation to giving his 
people a share of the powers and responsibilities of 
government 

135 Thai, Sayam, or Siam. — Siam is called by 
its inhabitants Thai, or Maiiang-Thai, which mean, 
"free'' or '"the kingdom of the free." Siam, or Sayam. 
is Malay, signifying "brown." Despite its boasting 
title, the kingdom is governed in the most despotic 
manner. The king is absolute and each of the forty 
one phajas, or governors, is absolute master within the 
limits of his province. The state religion is Budd- 
hism, which permits rather than authorizes despotism, 
but there being no regular priesthood, the state officials 
are the recognized upholders of the faith. 

Since little is known of the origin and history of 
Siamese institutions, comment thereon seems super- 
fluous. 



134. What is said of the ancient government of Japan? Vv'hatof the usurpation 
of the daimios? Of the government since th e restoration? 

135. What is said of the name Siam? Of the form of government in that 
country ? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 109 

CHAPTER XVII. 



MINOR STATES. 

136. Hawaii or the Sandwich Islands.— There 

is a class of minor stales which, though nominally in- 
dependent and sovereign, are just emerging from bar- 
barism, and adopting political forms. The constitu- 
tions of these governments are imported and have lit- 
tle hold upon the people, though in some cases foreign 
immigration has supplied a class politically instructed 
in the use of legU torais One of the best instances 
of this class of states is the kingdom ot Hawaii. This 
kingdom was founded in 1782, by Kamehameha I. 
nephew of Kalamhopmi who was chief of the island of 
Hawaii, or Ovvhyee, at the time of its discovery by 
Captain Cook in 1779 Kamehameha, who was a 
great warrior, usuiped the chieftainship after his uncle's 
death, and by conquest extended his authority over the 
other Sandwich Islands. This monarch, in appointing 
a successor, as by Hawaiian custom he had a right to 
do, appointed also a chief adviser. The premiership 
thus founded is an important office in the Hawaiian 
constitution, being granted an absolute veto over the 
executive acts of the king, even as the king has an 
absolute veto on all legislation. The legislative power 
is granted, in general terms, to an assembly of represen- 
tatives elected by the people, and to a council of chiefs 
or nobles appointed by the king. 

The government of Hawaii has not been altogether 
successful, and it has several times sought annexation 
to established states. England, France and the United 
States were successively approached, but none of them 
welcomed the project. Thrown back on its own re- 



136. vVhat is said of the character of tb*-, government of Hawaii ? What oi 
its history and development? 



no CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

sources, the kingdom has since endeavored, by offering 
great inducements to immigrants, to build up a state 
worthy of its liberal constitution. 

137. Tonga. — Resembling Hawaii, buion so small 
a scale as to seem a caricature, is the little kingdom of 
Tonga, better known perhaps as the Friendly Isles. 
The monarch of this little state of 25,000 inhabitants 
maintains a parliament and conducts his government 
with the forms borrowed from European kingdoms. 
The mimicry is amusing and apparently harmless, 
though it may be carried to the extent of burdening the 
people with taxes for the support of useless institutions. 

138. Sarawak. — In this connection may be men- 
tioned the little state of Sarawak-, on the northwest 
coast of Borneo, the sovereignty of which was purchas- 
ed of the sultan of Brunei in 1842, by James Brooke, 
an English gentleman desirous of giving the country 
an enlightened goverment. He bequeathed the rajah- 
ship to his nephew, the present sovereign. The gov- 
erment is a benevolent despotism, in which the subjects 
are consulted with a view to their participation when 
more fully enlightened. 

139. Madagascar. — Part of the island of Mada- 
gascar still remains under the primitive tribal form of 
organization, but the ruling race, the Hovas, have 
framed a centralized despotism resembling those of Asia, 
The monarch, though reverenced as of divine appoint- 
ment, is not altogether autocratic, being obliged to obtain 
the consent of the chief nobility in making laws. 

140. Abyssinia —This long established state 
seems to have derived its political institutions, at least 
in part, from Egypt and Islam. It is said, by native 

137. What of the kingdom of Tonga ? 

138. Who founded the state of Sarawak? How is it governed ? 

139. What progress have the Hovas of Madagascar made in the art of 
government? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. Ill 

historians, to have existed since the time of Solomon, 
one of its royal families claiming lineal descent from the 
queen of Sheba. Its government resembles that of Af- 
ghanistan in being merely the supremacy of one chief 
over his fellows, maintained by force of arms. 

141. Zanzibar. — The sultan (t. e. "great one") of 
Zanzibar holds his power by the strong hand, resemb- 
ling in this the sultan of Morocco. 

142. Brunei or Borneo. — The sultan of Borneo, 
by a judicious disposal of his supposed rights over the 
largest island in the world, and by grants of commercial 
privileges to foreign companies, has strengthened his 
tenure of office by making it for the interest of others 
to support him. His government is simply the suprem- 
acy of one chief over a number of other tribal chiefs, 
or rajahs. By the support of his foreign commercial 
allies, the sultan can not only maintain his supremacy 
over the rajahs, but he can exact a degree of obedience 
in return for his support in upholding them against 
rival chiefs of the same tribe. This country may there- 
fore be considered in the transition state from the sav- 
age tribal form to the Asiatic despotism. 

143. Object of Classification. — The object of 
strict classification of states as sovereign and depend- 
ent, would be more apparent if the claims of the strong- 
er states to influence the action of the weaker were 
open and declared. As it is, all the minor states are in a 
measure "protected" by their treaty, with more powerful 
governments, and in passing under the exclusive suz- 
erainty of any nation they do not all at once lose their 

140. What is said of the origin and nature of the government of Abys- 
sinia? 

141. What of that of Zanzibar ? 

142. How has the sultan of Brunei extended and strengthened his power? 
What is the nature of his government? 

143- What is said of the object of classifying states as sovereign and de 
pendent? 



H2 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

right to treat with other powers on the basis of equal- 
ity. A line must be drawn, however, between govern- 
ments which are complete and those which have yield- 
ed any portion of their powers to another, and this 
distinction is naturally based on the principle of sov- 
ereignty. 



PART 



DEPENDENT AND COMPONENT STATES. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



TUNIS, EGYPT, BULGARIA AND THE TRANSVAAL. 

144. Dependent and Component States. — 

Non sovereign slates may be classified as protected, 
tributary, colonial and component. Thus a power may 
obtain by treaty what is known as suzerainty over a 
foreign state without attempting to derive any revenue 
therefrom. This gives the suzerain state the right to 
interfere in the relations between the protected state 
and other powers. On the other hand, a province 
may so far gain its independence as to leave its former 
sovereign only a suzerainty, accompanied by an annual 
tribute. Or the province may, as is often the case 
with colonies of civilized states, be granted autonomy, 
/. e., — the right of local self-government — while still 
acknowledging the superiority of the parent state. 
There is of course no necessary connection between 
the degree of the dependence and the manner in which 
it was brought about. 

Component states are those which, though integral 
as to local affairs, form one of a federation as to na- 
tional affairs. 

145. Afrikija or Tunis. — Tunis is a kingdom or 
beylik under the suzerainty of France. From the be- 
ginning of the eighteenth century to 187 1, Tunis was 
tributary to the Turkish porte, but in that year became 
virtually independent by special firman. In 1881 the 

144. Define dependent states. Define component states. 



114 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

French overran Tunis in retaliation for the forays of 
Tunisian Arabs. By the treaty of May 12, 1881, 
France engaged to protect the frontier and coast of 
Tunis and protect the state against foreign powers, and 
Tunis engaged to make no further treaties with other 
nations without the consent of France. As for exist- 
ing treaties, they were specifically confirmed by the 
first clause of the treaty, but in the fall of 1882 were 
dissolved by international agreemente 

The government of Tunis is vested by its constitu- 
tion in the bey assisted by a ministerial council, com- 
posed of six heads of departments. The French min- 
ister resident supervises all foreign affairs j and French 
officials assist in providing for the liquidation of the 
public debt. 

The organic law of Tunis was established by de- 
cree of the autocratic bey in i86i,but v/as suspended 
from 1864 to 1877. Those chiefly interested in the 
maintenance of the constitution were the foreign immi- 
grants, the Arabs apparently preferring the Koranic 
despotism. 

146. Kemi, Misr or Egypt. — Egypt is under the 
protection of England and under the suzerainty of the 
Turkish porte, paying to the latter an annual tribute of 
;^7 20,000. Though at present v/riting, no permanent 
settlement has been made, it is probable that Egypt will 
be encouraged to repudiate her engagement with the 
porte and become nominally a sovereign state but real- 
ly a dependency of the British empire. 

The government of Egypt is in a state of transition 
from the despotism which existed before the rebellion 
of 1882, and the enforced concession of an organic law 

145. Describe the relations between Tunis and France. How is Tunis 
governed? What is said of its constitution? 

146. In what relation does Egypt stand toward England. Toward the 
porte? How is Egypt governed? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 115 

by the khedive, to a constitutional and representative 
monarchy. A plan of government has been formulat- 
ed by the English ministry and approved by the 
British representatives in Egypt. By it the legislative 
power is entrusted to a ministerial council, subject 10 
the approval of a representative council, partly ap- 
pointed and partly elected. In case of a dispute, de- 
cision will rest with the khedive. The election of re 
presentatives in the council is to be indirect, probably 
coming through the assembly of notables, which is still 
to exist in the shape of a chamber of forty five depu- 
ties. The selection of the notables will rest, as hereto- 
fore, with the head men of the village communities. 
This lower house is to have no legislative power at 
present, but will afford the people an insight into the 
working of their government. 

147. Origin and History. — From the advent of 
the Turk until the beginning of the present century, 
Egypt was a mere pashalik of the sultan, but Mehemet 
Ali, appointed pasha or governor in 1806, speedily 
made himself master of the country and compelled the 
sultan to grant him the government of the province 
under the title of "vali," or viceroy. The office was 
made hereditary, the title resting, according to moslem 
custom, ill the oldest male relative of the sovereign. 
In 1866, the sultan was persuaded to grant the title 
"Khediv el Misr," (king of Egypt) and to change the 
succession to the direct line. By this firman of 1866. 
the suzerainty of the sultan was recognized only by tlie 
annual tribute of fe, 600, 000, by the imperial cipher on 
Egyptian coin, by the preservation of the porte's an 
cient right of sending embassies to examine Egyp- 
tian affairs and by the weekly prayer for the sultan in 
the mosques. But the sultan still retained the right 
to depose the khedive (provided he had the military 
power), and in 1879 he exercised this right, at the re- 



ii6 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

quest of the European powers who complained that Is- 
mail borrowed money and made no effort to repay it. 
In confirming the new khedive the saltan took from 
him the right to pledge the credit of the state for for- 
eign loans and the right to increase his army beyond a 
specified limit. 

Such was the condition of things at the outbreak of 
the Anglo-Egyptian war. This war was waged by 
England to uphold the authority of the Khedive Tew- 
fik and to subdue an insurrection directed against the 
control of financial affairs, which had been entrusted 
to representatives of England and France. The war 
was successful, but the control was abandoned and a 
financial adviser appointed without executive powers. 
148. Bulgaria.— The province of Bulgaria was by 
the treaty of Berlin in 1878 constituted an "autonom- 
ous and tributary principality under tlie suzerainty of 
his imperial majesty, the sultan." The amount of 
tribute is based on the mean revenue of the state, and 
is payable annually in such a manner as the parties to 
the transaction agree upon. 

The prince is elected for life by i\vi people, through 
a constituent assembly, and as this assembly is em- 
powered to fill vacancies in the princely office, it has 
also traditional right to declare such vacancies, thus 
deposing an unpopular prince. 

By the constitution adopted in 1879 and amended 
in 1881, the legislative authority is vested in a nation- 
al assembly of two chambers, — four appointed by the 
prince and eight indirectly elected,— and a chamber of 
deputies, the members of which are elected every four 
years by universal manhood suffrage. The prince 
has the right to appoint members to the lower house 
equal to one-half the number already elected, and 

T47. Give the history of the relations between Egypt and the sultan. Also 
the cause and effect of the Anglo-Egyptian war. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 117 

over and above this has the right to dissolve the 
chambers at any time and call for a new election. 
Extraordinary legislative powers were granted him 
for twelve years by the constituent assembly of 1881, 
so that he is at present little less than a despot. The 
executive authority is administered by a council 
consisting of the chiefs of the seven departments of 
state 

149. Origin and History. — The principality of 
Bulgaria was established in 1879 ia accordance with 
the decision of the congress of Beriin, called to de- 
termine the results of the Russio-Turkish war. A 
constituent assembly drafted a constitution and elect- 
ed as prince Alexander, a scion of the royal house of 
Hesse. The legislature at first consisted of but one 
chamber, but in 1881, the prince insisted, as a condi- 
tion of his retaining the throne, on a revision of the 
constitution, the e.^tablishment of a senate and a grant 
of special powers for a term of years. This was 
granted by the great national assembly, July 13, 1881. 

150. The Transvaal. — The republic of the 
Transvaal in South Africa is under the suzerainty of 
Great Britain, but no tribute is exacted. Its r'ghts of 
sell-government are administered by a president and 
a volkhraad, or chamber of deputies. The Trans- 
vaal was colonized by Dutch Boers from the British 
settlemeiUs. Its independence was acknowledged by 
England in 1852, but in 1877 the latter country, dur- 
ing its war with the Zulus, annexed the Transvaal. 
The Boers having vainly protested, took up arms to 
preserve their independence, which was finally 

148. How IS Bulgaria subject to the sultan? How is the state governed? 

149. ^'hen and how was the principality established? What changes were 
made in 1881? 

150. What is said of the government of the Transvaal? What of its rela- 
tion to the British crown? 



Il8 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

conceded in 1881, the British crown reserving the 
suzerain right to supervise the foreign relations of the 
republic and its dealings with the native tribes. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



AUTONOMOUS COLONIAL DEPENDENCIES. 

151. British Colonies. —Nine ot the British col- 
onies have secured full rights of self-government, ex- 
cept in the choice of their chief magistrate, who is ap- 
pointed by the British crown. Over these states the 
British government exercises only the suzerain right of 
supervising foreign relations, together with a veto — 
through its appointed representative—on the laws 
passed by the colonial legislature. 

152. Dominion of Canada. — The Dominion of 
Canada consists of the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, 
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, British Co- 
lumbia and Prince Edward's Island. These provinces 
were united under the "British North American act," 
passed by the imperial parliament, and established by 
royal proclamation July i, 1867. The act orders that 
the constitution of the dominion shall be " similar in 
principle to that of the united kingdom ; that the ex- 
ecutive authority shall be vested in the sovereign of 
Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on in her name 
by a governor general and privy council; and that the 
legislative power shall be exercised by a parliament of 
two houses called the senate and the house of com- 
mons. The seventy-seven members of the senate are 
appointed for life by the governor general, but are ap- 
portioned to represent the different provinces. The 
members of the house are elected by the. people for 



151. What liberties have been granted to the most powerful British col- 
onies? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 119 

five years, on the basis of one deputy for every 17,000 
of population. The qualification for the franchise 
varies in the different provinces, as it is fixed by the 
provincial assemblies. 

The seven provinces forming the dominion have 
each a separate parliament and administration with a 
lieutenant governor at the head of the executive. They 
have full power to regulate their own local affairs, dis- 
pose of their revenues, and enact such laws as they 
may deem best for their own internal welfare, provided 
only they do not interfere with the action and policy 
of the central administration. 

The relation between the Canadian provinces and 
the dominion government is somewhat similar to that 
existing between the states of our union and the 
federal government. The provinces have not the 
choice of their chief executive, it is true, but that choice 
is exercised, not by the dominion, but by the imperial 
government through the governor-general. On the 
other hand the appointment of the chief magistrate by 
the crown detracts little from the autonomy of the do- 
minion, since the real executive, the ministry, is sub- 
ject to the will of the majority in the house of com- 
mons. 

153. Origin and History. — Before the act of 
confederation, the dominion was governed by the Brit- 
ish colonial office, according to the status of the col- 
onies. Upper and Lower Canada (now known as On- 
tario and Quebec) had secured a union under a par- 
liament and a responsible ministry in 1840. This was 
the result of a happy adjustment of the troubles which 



152. Of what does the Dominion of Canada consist? When and how 
were these provinces united? In vvhom are the powers of government vested? 
What is said of provincial government? What of the relation between province 
and dominion? 



I20 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

led to a brief revolt in 1837. Tiie desire of the other 
colonies to share the independence of the Canadas, 
led to the confederation with them in 1867 of New- 
Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The territory of the 
Hudson Bay company was transferred to the domin- 
ion in 1869, and the province of Manitoba created. 
British Columbia joined the federation in 187 1 and 
Prince Edward's Island in 1873. Provision was made 
for the admission of Newfoundland, but that province 
has so far deferred her acceptance of the invitation. 

154. Newfoundland. The people of Newfound- 
land number about 160,000 altogether. They are 
chiefly engaged in catching and curing fish, or in trades 
attendant upon this industry. The agricultural and 
mineral resources of the island have not been developed. 
Indeed, we are assured that "until about fifty years 
ago, nobody was permitted to settle in the interior of 
Newfoundland to hold a farm or build a house, lest 
the fishery should be neglected." 

Since 1855, Newfoundland has possessed a consti- 
tutional form of government, with an assembly elected 
by household suffrage and a small legislative council 
appointed by the governor, who is nominated by the 
British crown. The executive power is in the hands 
of the ministry, which is responsible to the representa- 
tive assembly. 

155. Cape Colony.— Like Canada, the South 
African state "of Cape Colony is governed by a parlia- 
ment and a responsible ministry. It is a unified or in- 
tegral state, however, not a federation of provinces, 

153. Give the origin and history of the Canada confederation. 

154. What is said of the development of Newfoundland? How is the 
colony governed? 

155. How are the powers of government apportioned in the Cape Colo- 
nies? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. I2i 

and hence its executive ranks as a governor and not 
as a governor-general. The constituiion vests the 
executive pov/er in the governor and an executive 
council, compose \ of certain officeholders appointed 
by the crown The legislative power is given to the 
legislative council of twenty one members, and to the 
house of assembly of sixty-eight members. The as- 
semblymen represent the various town and country 
districts, and are elected every five years by popular 
suffrage, subject to property qualifications for both 
voter and deputy. The councilmen are also elected, 
(subject to similar qualifications) but in a different 
way. Up to i88[, they were chosen on general tickets 
— scrutin de liste, as the French say — by the voters of 
the two districts into which the colony was divided. 
The tjn representing the eastern district were chosen 
for ten years; the eleven representing the western dis- 
trict for five years. Some changes have been made in 
the interest of uniformity, but the general plan still 
remains the same. 

156. Origin and History. — The Cape of Good 
Hope was discovered by the Portuguese, colonized by 
the Dutch in 1652 and conquered by the English in 
1796. In 1803 It was given up to the Netherlands, but 
was again occupied by the British three years later. 
The colony first secured its political liberties in 1853, 
after successfully resisting, in 1850, the landing of a 
cargo of British convicts. By act of parliament in 
1853 the colony was granted a representative govern- 
ment, which was established the same year, but it was 
not until 1872 that the ''system of executive admistra- 
tion commonly known as responsible government" was 
formally introduced. Though not in every respect a 
success, the new order of things is generally satisfac- 

156. What is the history of representative institutions in this colony? 



122 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

tory, and it is seriously proposed to unite the British 
African possessions under a dominion government sim- 
ilar to that of Canada 

157. New South Wales.— New South Wales, 
the oldest of the Australian colonies, possesses a "re- 
sponsible government" established by act of parlia- 
ment in 1855. The constitution vests the legislative 
power in a parliament of two houses — a legislative 
council nominated by the crown and an assembly 
elected by universal manhood suffrage in the 102 dis- 
tricts into which the colony is divided. The executive 
in this, as in other colonies, is vested in a governor ap- 
pointed by the crown. 

The government is more democratic in practice than 
in theory. The power is almost entirely in the hands 
of the ministry, which is virtually a committee of the 
assembly. In the twenty-eight years of its existence 
the assembly has made and unmade nearly as many 
ministries, which shows a determination to rule on the 
part of the people's representatives The legislative 
council finds its sphere in revising, without essentially 
modifying, the work of the assembly. 

158. Origin and History. — New South Wales, 
discovered by Captain Cook in 1770, was first col- 
onized in 1788, the British Government having made 
it a penal settlement. The colonial territory at first 
extended over the eastern half of the island, but the 
erection into separate colonies of South Australia in 
1836, Victoria in 185 1, and Queensland in 1859, re- 
duced the colony to its present limits. The transpor- 
tation of convicts lasted until 1840, and was a great 
drawback to the growth of the colony. The gold dis- 



157. What is the form of government in New South Wales? How are the 
powers apportioned? 

158. When and how was the colony founded? What are the chief facts of 
its history? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 123 

coveries of 1851 gave an impetus to immigration, but 
the population and the prosperity thus gained did not 
fit the colony for self-government. The political his- 
tory of the colony has been that of lax administration 
of law, together v/ith profuse expenditure of public 
funds. The exceptional position of the colonies, hav- 
ing neither foreign foes nor aboriginal tribes to contend 
with, will make it easy to carry their load of national 
debt, without burdening the people with heavy taxa- 
tion. And since the colonies have similar interests, a 
federation like that of Canada, if not a union of inde- 
pendent states like the United States, is among the 
possibilities of the future. 

159. Victoria. — This state maintains a similar 
form of government to that existing in New South 
Wales. Its legislative council is, however, elected and 
not appointed, a property qualification being enforced 
on both voter and deputy in the election. Only col- 
lege graduates, schoolmasters, ministers, lawyers and 
doctors are, as voters, exempt from this property qual- 
ification. By the reform bill of 188 1, the electoral dis- 
tricts for coLincilmen were increased to fourteen, and 
each district was allowed three representatives. These 
were chosen for six years, one third retiring every 
third year, as in the United States senate. _ The mem- 
bers of the lower house are elected by universal man- 
hood suffrage everv three years. 

First settled in 183c;, Victoria was, until 1 851, known 
as the Port Phillip district of New South Wales. Its 
career since its erection into a colony has been un- 
eventful, like that of its sister colonies. 

160. South Australia. — The constitution of South 
AustraUa resembles that of Victoria in making the up- 



159. Compare the government of Victoria with that of the parent colony. 
Whrit is said of the settlement and history of the colony ? 



124 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

per house elective. This house, known as the legisla- 
tive council, is composed of eighteen members, six of 
whom retire every four years, making the term of of- 
fice twelve years. Councilmen are elected on a gen- 
eral ticket by the colonists, subject to property quali- 
fication for voters, but not for condidates. The house 
of assembly is elected by manhood suffrage every three 
years. 

The colony of South Australia was founded in 1837 
by an association formed in England to carry out the 
Wakefield plan of an ideal settlement. The land was 
to be divided into lots according to an arbitrary plan, 
and sold to capitalists at a fixed price, and the pro- 
ceeds of such sales were to be spent in building roads, 
founding schools and making other improvenents to 
invite emigration and enhance the value of the land. 
The scheme, as a whole, was abandoned, but being 
worked out in many minor points, it had a marked ef- 
fect on the character of the colony. The chief indus- 
tries of the colony are agriculture and sheep grazing. 
Mining is carried on extensively, but this is not for 
gold, but for copper and iron, and the colony has been 
spared the agitation of the "gold-fever." Its political 
development has been peaceful and steady. 

161. Queensland. — The government of Queens- 
land is administered by a governor and a parliament. 
The governor is appointed by the crown and is assist- 
ed by a responsible minstry. The parliament consists 
of two houses— the legislative council of thirty members 
nominated by the crown for life, and the legislative 
assembly of fifty-five deputies, returned from as many 
electoral districts, elected for five years by the vote 



160. How is South Australia governed ? What was the plan of its set- 
tlement ? 

161. How is Queensland governed? When and by whom was it settled? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 125 

of all tax payers. A tax-payer in several districts is 
entitled to vote in each, irrespective of his place of 
residence. 

Like New South Wales, Queensland was a first a 
penal colony, being settled by convicts in 1825. In 
1842, the country was thrown open to free settlers and 
has since been rapidly colonized. The immigrants at 
first were chit fly troni England but of late years many 
have come from China and the South Sea Islands. 

162. Tasmania. — By the constitution of Tasmania 
the legislative authority is vested in a parliament of 
two houses, a legislative council of sixteen members, 
elected by citizen subjects of the British crown who 
possess either a freehold worth £^^0 a year, or a lease- 
hold of ;2{^2oo, or have a commission in the army or 
navy, or a university degree or are in holy orders — 
and a house of assembly of thirty-two members elect- 
ed by the people, subject to a small property qualifi- 
cation, 

Tasmania — once known as Van Diemen's Land, in 
honor of a governor of the Dutch East Indies — was 
discovered by the navigator Tasman in 1642; and 
afterward partially explored by Captain Cook. The 
first penal settlement here was in 1803 ; and till 1813 
it was merely a place of transportation from Great 
Britain and from New South Wales, of which colony it 
was a dependency. Transportation to New South 
Wales having ceased in the year 1841, Tasmania be- 
came the only colony to which British convicts were 
sent. This ceased in 1853, when the practice of trans- 
portation was abandoned. 

163. New Zealand. — The government of New 
Zealand was established by statute in 1852 and re- 



162. How does the constitution of Tasmania compare with that her sister 
States? What is said o* its history? 



126 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

modeled in 1875. It resembles its sister colonies in 
the general iorm of its government. Its legislative 
council is appointed by the crown and its house of 
assembly elected by the people subject to a property 
qualification. The executive authority is nominally 
vested in the governor, but the administration is en- 
trusted to a responsible ministry of nine members. 
There are also two native (Maori) members of the ex- 
ecutive council, not in charge of any department, 
who have a voice in the direction of native affairs. 

New Zealand, first established as a colony in 1840, 
has made rapid progress, owing to the advantages it 
offers to immigrants. Of the area of 505,342 square 
miles, two thirds are fitted for agriculture or grazing, 
and the Maori population, though comparatively more 
numerous than that in Australia, has never caused 
serious trouble. 

164, Barbarous Protected States.— There are 
several countries classed as "protected "which may 
be set down as in process of subjection or absorption ; 
and, for the double reason that their political institu- 
tions are little known and not likely to last, may be 
dismissed with a mere mention. Corea is one ofthese 
states; beyond the fact that its government is a 
religious despotism, presided over by a king so holy, 
ex-officio, that his name is never mentioned, but little 
can be said. Corea is subject to China and also to 
Japan, to the extent of not resisting these nations 
when they meddle in her affairs. Anam, or Cochin 
China, has a similar form of government, headed by 
an emperor named, or styled, Tu-Duc. Anam has 
long acknowledged the suzerainty of China, but in 
1787, the Emperor Gyalong accepted also the pro- 

163. How are the people of New Zealand governed? 

164. What is said of the constitutions of barbarous dependent state? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 127 

tection of France, thereby incurring obligations which 
his successor would be glad to repudiate. Sulu, the 
archipelago to the nortueast of the island of Borneo, 
is governed by a barbaric despot, nominally owing 
allegiance to the crown of Spain, and there are others 
still too insignificant even for notice. 



CHAPTER XX. 

COMPONENT STATES. 

165. Federated States. — The position of a feder- 
ated state differs widely from that of a dependency ; 
for much as it may lose in the power of self-govern- 
ment it gains a standing and a voice in national 
affairs. True, it may be outvoted and overruled, but 
the ]:!Osition of a voter in the minority is superior in 
dignity to that of a disfranchised citizen. 

A member of a federation of states is to be con- 
sidered in two relations; first, its status in the union, 
and, second, its position as a limited sovereignly. 
The state governments of our union and the constitu- 
tions of the German and Austrian states are especially 
worthy of studv. 

166. Rights of Federated States.— The rights 
of the states of our Unio)i are all those pertaining to 
complete sovereignties, except in so far as the same 
have been delegated to the federal government. In 
exchange for this cession nf rights they have obtained 
certain rights in the union, which are guaranteed by 
the constitution. These are (i) Right to representa- 
tion by chosen delegates in the federal congress and 
to a proportionate vote in the election of the preside^ t; 
(2) reciprocal rights of free trade and inter-state citi- 
zenship, extending to the extradition of criminals ; 

165 . What is the diflFerence between a component state and a dependency? 



128 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

(3) full faith and credit in its dealings with other 
states or with the federal government; (4), right to 
federal protection against invasion, or, when demanded, 
against domestic violence. 

As to representation the state has a right to at least 
one representative in the house, and to as many more 
as its comparative population entitles it ; a right to as 
many representatives in the senate as are sent by other 
states, and a right to as many electoral votes for 
president and vice president as it has representatives 
in both houses of congress. The right of citizens of 
one state to trade with those of another, or by residing 
within the territory of another state, to become 
possessed of the rights of citizenship in that state, is 
guaranteed to each state, and imposed on the states as 
a nation, by the constitution. The same may be said 
of the right of states to faith and credit. These rights 
can seldom be enforced, because, from their peculiar 
nature, they seldom appear in cases at law, but set 
forth rules of action, obedience to which is alv>rays pre- 
sumed by the courts. In the same way, a state has a 
right to protection against invasion or domestic vio- 
lence, but the president may at his discretion refuse it, 
forcing the state government to rely on itself. 

As to Mexico and the South American confederations, 
they were formed on the model of the United States, 
and the position of the component states differs from 
that of the members of our union mainly through 
a different interpretation of the constitution. In 
Venezuela, however, the state receives no guar- 
antee of protection against domestic insurrec- 
tion, and the federal government is expressly pro- 

166. What are the inherent rishts of the states of our union? "^Vhat their 
rig' ts as members of ihe union? Note the difference in the case of Mexico 
and South American federations' In Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Sweden 
and Norwiiy. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 129 

hibited from interfering. In that country, too, the 
national government has no administrative officers in 
the states, and is forced to rely on the state officials, 
whom it cannot coerce. In other states, Mexico par- 
ticularly, the federal officers have taken so much upon 
themselves, especially in the conduct of elections, 
that the independence of the states is seriously in- 
fringed. 

In European federated states there is no attempt 
made (except in the Swiss senate) to preserve the 
equalit,y of states, and if there is limitation placed 
upon the federal authority, it is usually because the 
larger states will not delegate their powers. Thus in 
spite of Prussia's overwhelming supremacy in the Ger- 
man empire, she jealously preserves her autonomy, and 
only exalts the federal power when it is necessary to 
overawe some of the minor states. Austria- Hungary 
and Sweden and Norway are bipartite states, united 
in the person of the sovereign and with a common 
army and foreign-affairs department. 

The Swiss canton resembles our state not a little in 
its carefully preserved independence, but the small 
size of the cantons puts comparison out of the question. 

163. Limitations of Federated States. — It is 
important to consider the limitations of component 
states, since the sum of their limitations equals the dif- 
ference between them and sovereign states. Or, to put 
it in another way,the status of a member of a federation 
is the standing of an independent state minus the rights 
it has delegated to the central government. The first 
limitation is subordination of state law to federal legis- 
lation ; the second, the prohibitions placed upon the 
states by the federal constitution. 

In our union, the ''constitution of the United States 
and the laws made in pursuance thereof" and all treaties 



I30 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

made by the proper authorities, are superior to state 
constitution and laws, and are made binding on the 
state courts. This is the case in nearly all the federa- 
tions as they exist to-day, though it was not so with us 
under the articles of confederation, nor is it the case in 
the united states of Venezuela. There the states are 
bound to regard federal legislation as supreme, but in 
the case of a dispute ever the constitutionality of an 
act of the national congress, state courts are bound by 
state laws imtil the matter has been settled by ^arbi- 
tration. The question was once raised whether^a state 
in our union could legally nullify, within its own bor- 
ders, an act of congress. This has been settled in the 
negative, as it would plainly lead to confusion, but in 
some cases, as in the Swiss federation, appeal can be 
taken from the congres- to the voters of the cantons, 
and an obnoxious law be so repealed. 

In token of this subordination of the states to the 
federal government, all legislative, executive and judicial 
offic ers in the states are obliged to take the oath of 
allegiance to the United States. 

The states of our union are distinctly prohibited from 
making treaties or alliances, either among themselves 
or with foreign powers, without the approval of con- 
gress. This is a wise provision, as the experience of 
the German and Swiss confederations abundantly proves. 
Yet the South American federations have not followed 
our example in this regard. The provinces of the 
Argentine Confederation expressly reserve the right to 
make contracts among themselves to '^administer justice 
and promote economical interests." The Venezuelan 
states claim the right to unite, in groups of two or more, 



163. What Is the character of the limitations upon federal states? How far 
are component states subordinate to the nation? Name the chief constitu- 
tional prohibitions on the states of our union. On those of other federations. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 131 

to form a single state, and to resunne their in- 
dividuality, without asking the consent of congress, and 
without loss of votes for president or representation in 
the federal senate. Yet in both these federations, the 
states — those of the Argentine by prohibition and thos: 
of Venezuela by pledge — are disabled as far as making 
political compacts with foreign countries goes. In the 
German empire, one state can cede territory to another 
without asking the consent of the central government, 
the empire claiming the right to interfere when the 
general order or security is threatened. Indeed there is 
nothing in tlie constitution explicitly to prevent a state 
from entering into an alliance with a forcgn state, and 
some of the states are allowed to maintain diplomatic 
representatives at foreign courts, but all this is with the 
understanding that the mandate of the imperial govern- 
ment, when delivered, is supreme. 

In the matter of commerce, our states are forbidden 
to coin money, emit bills of credit or make anything 
but gold and silver legal tender, or to pass any law 
impairing the obligation of contracts. The states are 
also debarred from interfering with the federal authority 
or regulating commerce by imposing duties of tonnage 
or duties upon imports or exports, except such taxes as 
may be neccessary to execute the state inspection laws. 

On these points most federations agree in limiting 
the states. The Argentine constitution prohibits the 
states from exercising the powers delegated to the na- 
tion. They cannot make laws on commerce or naviga- 
tion, nor impose duties, nor coin money, nor even 
charter banks of emission (as our own states can do) 
nor can they legislate in any sphere constitutionally 
occupied by congress. In Venezuela the states pledge 
themselves not to tax what congress has already taxed, 
nor to interfere with the federal regulation of commerce, 



132 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

nor impose commands on federal officers incompatible 
with their federal duties. In Germany, the central 
power clanns exclusive legislation with regard to the 
imperial army and diplomatic service, and also with 
regard to post and telegraphs, the regulation of com- 
merce, navigation, and emigration ; the disposition of 
the federal revenues and the exclusive right to tax 
sugar, sa t, tobacco, brandy and beer. The claim to 
c xclusive power to lay direct taxes upon specific com- 
modities is unubual. Mo.^t component states have the 
right to collect excises, which da not affect inter-state 
commerce. In Venezuela the states have exclusive right 
to do so. 

The German imperial government has also exclusive 
control of the banking system, coinage and the issue of 
paper money. The purpose of this control of matters 
affecting commercial interests by the federal puihority 
is to secure uniformity and fixity of law and the condi- 
tions of trade. 

A further prohibition upon component states is that 
they shall not without the consent of the federal gov- 
ernment maintain an army or navy in time of peace, nor 
commit any independent act of war. In this countr\, 
states usually mamtain a militia in accordance with an 
act of congress, but in some countries even this is not 
allowed. In Venezuela, however, the states claim the 
right to maintain forces, and refuse to allow the federal 
government to station its armies within the states in time 
of peace. In the Argentine Confederation, on the other 
hand, the prohibition on the states is absolute, and in 
Germany, Austria and Switzerland, the army, though 
composed of the united forces of the several states, is 
under the exclusive control of the central government. 



IN THKORY AND I'RACTICE. 133 

CHAPTER XXI. 

STATE GOVERNMENTS. 

168. State Governments of the American Un- 
ion. — The governments cf the states are republican in 
form, as required by the federal constitution, and as 
each new state submits its state constitution to congress 
before admission to the union, radical differences in the 
state governments were not to be expected. The same- 
ness, however, is greater than can be accounted for, 
even by the fact that the political systems were framed 
by men of the same race. The explanation is that the 
constitutions were all framed by men of similar aspira- 
tions, without political training (except in the matter 
of local government; that could bias their minds for or 
against political institutions. Ail the constitutions 
contain elaborate declarations of the rights of citizens 
which are not to be subjected to legislative or judicial 
interference, and which are reserved from the domain 
of government. Among these guaranteed privileges 
are the rights to the writ ol habeas corpus, to trial by 
jury, to due compensation for property seized for public 
use, to freedom of speech and of the pre^s; also the 
right of the people to petition and to vote at all elec- 
tions and for all officers except those legally appointed 
by the people's representatives. 

The constitutions all divide the functions of govern- 
ment into legislative, judicial and executive, and specify 
the manner in which the legislature is to be elected, 
defire the powers and duties of the executive officers 
and organize the state judiciary. The executive power 
is vested in a governor elected by the popular vote for 



168. Note the points of similarity in the state eonstitutions. How and by 
whom are tue state governmi nts administered ? \v hat is the prevailing: sys- 
tem of local government? What variations occur ? How are town and county 
governments administered ? 



134 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

a fixed term, and in other elected or appointed officials. 
The governor is not allowed to choose the heads of 
departments, but they are elected with him and are but 
slightly subject to his control. The legislative power 
is vested in a legislature consisting of two -houses, a 
senate and an assembly. The senate differs from the 
assembly in comprising fewer members, representing 
larger constituencies. The judges of the different 
courts are usually made elective, but in some cases the 
governor is given power to appoint them or they are to 
be chosen by the legislature. 

In the matter of local government, there is no little 
variation in the different sections. All states are dividtd 
into counties — except Louisiana, where the divisions 
are styled parishes, a difference of name only — and in 
most cases the counties are subdivided into towns or 
townships. In the southern and extreme western states 
the county is the most important political division, and 
exercises most of the local government powers, such as 
the establishment of common schools, the levying 
and collection of taxes, the care of the roads and 
of the poor, etc., which powers in New Eng- 
land are generally exercised by the towns. In the 
middle states and those of the Ohio and Missouri valleys 
these powers are divided between town and county. 

Towns and counties are political corporations, char- 
tered by the state, and having power to own property 
and transact business. Cities are also incorporated, 
and where they occur, a third division of power is 
made, the city absorbing part of the rights of both 
town and county. 

The powers inherent in a county are exercised by its 
officers, usually elected by the people, but sometimes 
appointed by the governor of the state. In some 
cases the constitution provides for the county and 
town governments and in others it simply authorizes 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 135 

ihe legislature to do so. Usually a board of commis- 
sioners is elected to administer the powers entrusted 
to the county, but in some states the town supervisors 
form a county board. In Illinois, for instance, the 
people are allowed to choose wheiher they will have 
township organiziiion or not. If they decide to have 
it, each town is made a corporation and elects a super- 
visor, a treasurer and school and highway boards. The 
town supervisois meet at the county seat to form the 
county board and administer the county government, 
though there are also county officers, directly elected, 
as a judge, county clerk and treasurer, and superintend- 
ent of schools, coroner, surveyor, sheriff and district 
attorney. In New England, instead of supervisors, 
they have selectmen, three or more in each town, and 
in other states there are town trustees. The difference 
of name, however, is not material. 

169. Origin and History. — During the Revolu- 
tionary War, most of the 01 iginai thirteen states adopt- 
ed constitutions, and by the date of the adoption of 
our federal organic jaw, all the states had written con- 
stitutions. Each of them provided for its own amend- 
ment or abrogation, and hence each has been gradually 
remodeled to suit the taste and fancy of the msijority of 
the state's citizens. Some of the states even limit the 
duration of their constitutions in order to force a re- 
vision and readoption. The tendency of these periodi- 
cal amendments was at first toward an increase of pop- 
ular rights, and toward decentralization. This led to 
the requirement that all, or nearly all, officers should 
be elected by popular vote, instead of being appointed. 
With this has come a tendency to restrjct the power of 



169. What was the origin of the state constitutions ? What changes have 
been made in them ? Huw do you account for the difference of custom In 
county and town government 'f 



136 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the state legislature, especially in the matter of special 
legislation and the incurring of indebtedness, as well 
as the imposition of taxes. 

Local political institutions have had a more natural 
growth. The county — a British term designating the 
district governed by a count — -became in America the 
jurisdiction of the county court. In the early days in 
Virginia., the justices of the peace appointed by the 
governor in a county, formed its court and had, m ad- 
dition to their judicial power, the direction of county 
affairs. County officers proper, such as the sheriff and 
coroner, were appointed by the governor with the con- 
sent of the court, but local officials, such as constables, 
school and road commissioners, etc., were entirely un- 
der the court's direction. In Pennsylvania and other 
colonies where the proprietary system prevailed, the 
county court — the court of sessions — wielded the chief 
power and made the county the most important politi- 
cal division. With the separation of the judicial from 
the executive branches of government, came a county 
board of commissioners, with the pov/eis and duties 
heretofore given to the court. These v/ere at first ap- 
pointed by the governor, but in time came to be chosen 
by the people. 

In Nev/ York and New England the town system pre- 
vailed. There the chief county officer was the sheriff, 
and public affairs were attended to by the elected offi- 
cers of the towns, or parishes, for the church was the 
center point of the community. In the Ohio and Mis- 
souri valleys, the town system also grew m favor, re- 
ceiving its impetus, not from the church, but from the 
school house. Each township had had a grant of 
school land from the state, and organized itself to take 
charge of it. The chief officer of the town was execu- 
tive, not judicial, and those of the county collectively 
formed a board of administrative officers, not a court. 



IN TFIEORY AND PRACTICE. 13? 

Here we find then, the town supervisor, who is ex 
officio member of the county board. 

The prevalence of one system or the other depended 
largely upon the political training of the earlier emi- 
grants, but in a mixed coiiimunity the system appar^ 
ently best adapted to the circumstances was well nigh 
certain to be adopted, the voters having a keen sen?;e 
of their own interest. 

170. State Governments of Germany. — The 
German s'aie constitutions jjie^eil a more interesting 
study than those of our American states, because they 
are more varied. Tie German constitutions contain 
points of similarity doubtless, being framed by people 
of the same race, but they have different origins, and 
are more difficult to revise and amend, owing to vested 
interests; hence there exists great diversity, as will ap- 
pear on close examii ation. 

171. Konigreich Preussen. — The government of 
Prussia is a constiunional monarchy. The constitu- 
non, — which was first proclaimed in 1849, but has 
since been greatly motiified by royal decrees — is recog- 
nized as a grant of the king and not a creation of the 
people. 

It vests the executive and part of the legislative pow- 
er in the king, who holds the crown by hereditary rii^h*. 
In his executive duties the king is ''assisted" by acoun- 
cil of ministers appointee] and removed by himself. In 
making laws, a representative assembly co operates 
with the king. This assembly consists of two cham- 
bers, — a Herrenhaus, or house of lords, and an Abgeord- 
netenhaus, or chamber of deputies. 



170. What is said of the state governments of Germany? 

171. How is Prussia governed ? State the comp sition of its house of ords. 
How are the Prussian deputies elected ? How are provinces governed ? 



i38 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

The house of lords is composed of, first, the princes 
of the royal family who are of age, including 
the scions of the formerly sovereign families of 
HohenzoUern - Hechingen and Hohenzollern Sig- 
maringen ; secondly, the chiefs of the mediatized 
jjrincely houses, recognized by the congress of Vienna, 
!0 the number of sixteen in Prussia; thirdly, the heads 
< f the territorial nobility formed by the king — -num- 
bering some fifty members; fourthly, a number of life 
peers, chosen by the king ; fifthly, eight titled noble- 
men, electe*! by resident landowners m the eight prov- 
inces of Prussia; sixthly, the representatives of the uni> 
versities, the heads of "chapters," and the burgomas> 
ters of towns with above 50,000 inhabitants ; and 
seventhly, an unlimited number of members nominated 
by the king for life, or for a specified number of years. 

Representation in the lower house is apportioned, in 
some degree, according to taxation. The house, which 
consists of 433 members— is chosen as follows : Every 
Prussian twenty-five years of age and entitled to vote 
at his ni'micipal election, is given a voice in the elec- 
tion of deputies. These voters are so classified and 
arranged in three classes that each class pays one third 
of the aggregate direct taxation. That is, enough of 
the chief taxpayers to represent one third of the tax, 
are put in the first class ; then a second grade is made, 
(based upon the same principle of excessive taxpaying^> 
to include another third, and the remainder of the poll 
list is put in the third grade. This classification being 
made, each giade chooses one third of the number of 
deputy electors granted to the whole constitumcy on 
the basis of one wahlmann (or direct elector) to each 
250 of population. The choice of the deputies by the 
electors completes the somewhat cumbersome mode of 
applying the property qualification. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 139 

A cabinet, or '^ministry of state," often departments, 
to ( arry on the executive government, is appointed by 
t! e king and is responsible to him alone. 

The governors of the provinces are likewise appoint- 
'd by the king, and the principal fuiictionaries of the 
counties, circles and pari.shes into which the provinces 
are successively subdivided, all are obliged to have 
their elections ratified by the king or his a}>pointees. 

172. Konigreich Bayern. — Bavaria is governed 
by a king under a cunstitu ion granted by the crown to 
the people in 1818, and again in 1848. To the king 
belongs all the executive, and a good share of the law- 
making, power, but the ministry are held responsible, 
(by impeachment) for all executive acts, and :he legis- 
lative functions are shared with the chamber of the 
reichsrathe, or councillors of the realm, and the cham- 
ber of representatives. The reichsrathe contains cer- 
tain hereditarv and ex officio members — the princes of 
the royal family, the archbishops and the heads of 
specified noble families — as well as an unlimited num- 
ber of members appointed by the crown. The depu- 
ties are <■ hosen by the people in indirect election. 

173. Konigreich Wurttemberg. — The constitu- 
tion of V/urttcmberg bears date Sept. 25, 1819. The 
executive p^wer is vested m a council of minister? rep- 
resenting the king. The legislative power is wholly in 
the hands of the parliament, which consists of two 
houses. The members of the upper chamber hold their 
seats by hereditary right or by the king's appointment 
for life. The king, hov/ever, can appoint but one^third 
of the chamber. The house of deputies is composed 



172. Describe the government of Bavaria. 

173. Give the chief points of the government of Wurttemberg. 



HO CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

of the chosen representatives of the landowners, of the 
clergy, and of the towns and rural districts. 

174. Konigreich Sachsen — By the constitution 
of Saxony ihe king shares the legislative power with 
the parliament, while he exercises the executive power 
tnrough * 'responsible" ministers. The parliament is 
in two houses. The upper chamber comprises the roy 
al princes^ eight of the chief landowning nobility, 
twelve deputies elected by the other nobles, and ten 
of the same class nominated by the king ; also the bur- 
gomasters of the principal towns and the heads of the 
chief universities. The lower house is elected by the 
landowners, the towns and communities, and trade and 
eusiness interests. The constitution of Saxony was 
qstablished in 1 831, but has been several times amended 
— in 1849, 1^5^ J i860 and 1861 respectively. 

175. Grossherzogthum Baden.— Baden is gov. 
erned by a grand duke and parliament under a consti- 
tution very similar to that of Saxony. The landown- 
ers have no special representation in the lower house, 
but the deputies are chosen, subject to a property qual> 
ification, for eis^ht years, Dy indirect election, which 
gives an aristocratic tone to the house. 

176. Mecklemberg.— Mecklemberg consists of 
two grandduchies, Mecklemberg-Schwerin and Meck- 
lemberg-Strelirz, The political institutions of these 
states are entirely feudal in character, and their con- 
stitutions date from 1523, but are modified by more 
recent legislation. In the first-named state, the whole 



174. How is Saxony governed ? State the composition of her legislative 
diet. 

175. What is Baden , and'^n what manner governed ? 

17o What is said of the grandduchies of Mecklemberg. Of her diet. Of the 
granddulses. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 141 

legislative power and part of the executive is in the 
hands of the proprietors of the Rittergutter, or knight's 
estates, numbering 622. Seldom more than one-fourth 
of these claim their soatsin the diet, which adds to it- 
self, by invitation, forty delegates of the principal 
towns and cities. The diet is permanent, being repre- 
sented, when not in session, by a committee of twelve. 
Every two years a joint assembly is held with the diet 
of Mecklemberg-Strelitz,or rather with the province of 
Stargard in that state. Stargard has a diet very similar 
to that of Mecklemberg-Schwerin, but the other prov- 
ince of Strelitz, Ratzeburg, has no representative insti- 
tutions whatever. 

The grand dukes of Mecklemberg are of Slavonic 
origin, tracing their descent from King Genseric,who 
conquered Spain in the fifth century. Their govern- 
ment, barring the rights exercised by the feudal nobility, 
is similar to that of the princes of Montenegro. In 
Mecklemberg-Schwerin the general administration is 
earned on by ministers appointed by, and responsible 
to, the graiid duke only. In Mecklemberg Strelitz 
there is but one minister of state at most, and some- 
times there is none. In neither state is there any dis 
tinction between the public revenue and that of the 
duke, and the only political divisions for local govern- 
ment are based on land ownership. 

177. Grossherzogthum Hessen.-Hesse is a grand 
ducfiy, with a'liberal constitution, vesting the legisla- 
tive power in a parliament of two houses, and the exe- 
cutive in the grand duke, represented by a responsible 
ministry. The members of the upper house hoM their 
seats by hereditary right, by appointment for life, or by 
virtue of office. The lower house consists of six depu- 



177. Describe the government of Hegge. 



142 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



ties 01 the noble landowners, ten of the towns, and 
thirty-four of the villages and communities. 

The former landgraves of Hesse had the title of 
grandduke given them by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806, 
and the title was afterward confirmed by the congress 
of Vienna, The constitution was granted in 1820 and 
revised in 1856. 

178. Grossherzogthum Oldenburg. — The con- 

stiiution of Oioeiibuig Wcis granted m 1849 ^"^ revised 
in 1852. The legislative power IS exercised by a diet 
chosen every three years by the indirect vote of all tax 
payers. The executive is vested, under the grandduke, 
in a responsible ministry of three departments. 

179. Herzogthum Braunschweig — The duchy 
of Brunswick is governed, — under a constitution estab- 
lished in 1832 and amended in 1851, — by a duke and 
parliament of onechamber. Of the 46 members of par- 
liament 21 are chosen by the highest taxed land owners, 
3 by the clergy, 10 by the towns and 12 by the rural 
districts. 

[A crisis i: impending in the history of this state. 
With the recent death of Wilhelm I, the ducal house 
of Brunswick became extinct. The heir at law, the 
duke of Cumberland, is rejected by the German emper- 
or, who may annex Brunswick to some other state to 
emphasize his objection to the succession of the duke 
of Cumberland.] • 

180. Saxe Weimar, Saxe Altenburg and Saxe 
Meiningen.— The grandduchy of Saxe Weimar and the 
duchy of Saxe Altenburg were formerly united and are 



178. How is Oldenburg governed ? 

179. What is said of Brunswick ? 

180. What of the states of Saxony? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 143 

now governed by different sovereigns under very simi- 
lar constitutions. The legislative power is in each 
case vested in a single chamber elected by the propri- 
etor of the nobiliar estates, by the towns or by the rur- 
al districts. In the same (lass we may put Saxe Mein« 
ingen, which has a constitution rlmost exactly like that 
of Saxe-Altenburg. 

These states, with the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
are governed by members of theelder lineof the prince- 
ly houses of Saxony, the younger line being represent- 
ed by the Kings of Saxony. Near the end of the six- 
teenth century the Elector Johann Wilhelm of Saxony, 
divided his dominions, giving one son Saxe-Altenburg 
and the other Saxe Weimar. Saxe-Meiningen was 
founded by Duke Bernhard, a scion of the house of 
Saxony. 

181 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. — This state consists 
of two provinces, Coburg and Gotha, and each province 
has a separate legislative council. These councils meet 
every year separately, and every other year hold a joint 
session as a "united parliament." The deputies are chosen 
for four years by an indirect vote of the people. 

This dukeriom existed as Saxe Saalfield- Coburg from 
the latter part of the 17th century until, by the ex- 
tinction of the line of Saxe-Gotha, in 1826, part of 
that dukedom fell to the reigning house of Saxe Saal- 
field C(^burg, which then assumed its present title. 

182. Herzogthum Anhalt. — This duchy has a con- 
stitution, proclaimed Sept. 17, 1859, and modified by 
a degree of Sept. 17, 1863, which gives legislative pow^ 
ers to a diet composed of ^6 members, 12 representing 
the nobility and chief landowners, 12 the towns and 12 



181, Of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ^ Give the history of these states. 

182. How is Anhalt governed? 



144 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the rural districts. The executive power is entirely in 
the handG of the duke, who governs through a minister 
of state. 

183. Furstenthum Waldeck. — This principal- 
ity IS governed under a charter granted Aug. 17, 1852. 
It has an assembly chosen like that of Anhalt, bat by 
the treaty of accession signed between Vv^aldeck and 
Prussia in 1867, the legislation of the council and the 
administration of the prince, are confined to strictly 
local affairs, all national authority being ceded to Prus- 
sia. 

184. Furstenthum Lippe, — Lippe has a charter 
of rights granted by us prince m 1836. It has a repre- 
sentative chamber, which has the right of voting in part 
the supplies. Beyond that the functions of the chamber 
are chiefly consultative, the prince retaining most of the 
legislative, as well as all of the executive, power in his 
own hands 

185. Schaumburg-Lippe. — The government ess 
tabhshed m this principaLity under the constitution 
granted Nov. 17,1868, is very similar to that of the last- 
named state, the prince retaining a large share of the 
legislative power, as well as the right to appoint two of 
the fifteen members of the diet. 

186. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarz- 
burg Sondershausen. — These states are governed by 
princes of a very ancient and wealthy house, which gave 
an emperor to Germany in the fourteenth century. In 
both states the sovereign has granted a constitution. 



183. What of the principa'ity of Wadeckf 

184. What of that of Lippe? 

185. Of SchaumburgLlppe? 

186. What is said of the two Schwarzburg states? 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 145 

giving restricted legislative rights to a di( t representing 
the chief tax-payers and the people generally. The ex- 
ecutive power is in boih cases wielded by the prince. 

187. Reuss-Schleiz and Reuss-Greiz. — In the 

firsi-named principality restricted legislative rights are 
granted to a diet elected by the landowners and the 
people. In Reuss Greiz a similar concession is made, 
but the prince appoints one-fourth of the legislature. 

The princes of these states are very wealthy, and the 
greater part of the territory they govern is their own 
private property. 

188. Freie Stadt Hamburg. — The present consti- 
tution of the free state of Hamburg was promulgated 
Sept. 28, i860; it vests the legislative and executive 
power in a parliament of two chambers, the senate and 
house of burgesses. The burgesses are elected by the 
people for a term of six years ; the senators are elected 
by the burgesses for life. In the election of the 192 
burgesses, 84 are chosen by the votes of all tax-paying 
citizens; 48 are chosen hy the chief real estate owners 
and the remaining 60 members deputed by the various 
guilds, corporations, and courts of justice. The senate 
which exercises chiefly, though not entirely, the execu- 
tive power, is composed of eighteen members, one-half 
of whom must have studied law, and seven of the re- 
maining nine must belong to the class of merchants. A 
first and second burgomaster, chosen annually, preside 
over the meetings of the senate. 

189. Freie Stadt Lubeck. — The free state of Lu- 
beck is governed,— under a constitution adopted April 



187. Describe Reussschlciz and Reuss Greiz. 

188- Give the salient points of the government of Hamburg.? 

189. How is Lubeck governed.'' 



146 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

>j^iSj4, — by a senate and house of burgesses resembling 
those of Hamburg, The house of burgesses has the 
initiative in all measures relating to the public expen- 
diture, foreign treaties and general legislation ; while 
the senate, entrusted chiefly with the executive govern- 
ment, has also to give its sanction to the passing of ev- 
ery new law. 

igo, Freie Stadt Bremen. — Bremen is governed 
under a constitution proclaimed March 5, 1849, and re- 
vised Feb. 21, 1854 by a senate of eigliteen members, 
forming the executive, and the "Convent of Burgesses" 
of 150 members,invested with the power of legislation. 
In the election of the burgesses, citizens who have 
studied at the university return 16 members ; merchants 
48 members ; traders and shop-keepers 24 members, 
and the other tax-paying citizens the rest. The burgesses 
elect the senate. 

191. Supreme Court, — The high court of appeal 
for the thrte free cities of Germany, reorganized in 
1870, is stationed at Lubeck. It is composed of a pres- 
ident nominated by the senates of the three free cities, 
and six councillors, three of whom are chosen by Ham- 
burg, two by Bremen, and one by Lubeck. The duty 
of supervising the court rests with the senates, each 
taking it a year in turn. 

192. Reichsland Elsass - Lothringen. — 
Alsace-Lorraine is not a state, but an "Imperial Land" 
— resembling in position a Territory in the American 
Union. It is governed by a Statthatter and council of 
state, all appointed by the German emperor. 



190. Describe the constitution of Bremen. 

191, What is said of the supreme court of the "free state.?" 
192 What is Alsace-Lorain and how governed.? 



\N THEORY AND PRACTICE. 147 

193. Other Component States.— Of the states 
comp<)sing the bipartite governmenis of Austria-Hun- 
gary, and Sweden and Norway, we have already spoken. 
The states of the so called empires of Austria and 
Russia are mere provinces. The cantons of Switzerland 
and the component states of the Mexican and South 
American republics have more or less perfect autonomy, 
but have not the same international standing as the 
German States. 

194. Study of Governments. — By the study 
and comparison of governments, we gain an in- 
sight not only into the political rights of the different 
classes in other nations, but also into the rnanner in 
which other governments discharge their duties. 

By way of comment it may be noted that the founda 
tion principle in the establishment of popular political 
rights has been the right of the people to control, 
through their representatives, the budget or government 
supply — including both the collection and expenditure 
of the revenues. The working of this principle is 
especially noticeable in the German states. The most 
despotic governments are those of sovereigns possessed 
of extensive domains in their own right, making them 
independent of the financial support of the people. 

The right of the people to control the revenues of 
the state is recognized in all liberal governments, but 
there are still many sovereigns who, though permitting 
the chamber of deputies to veto or control taxation, re- 
tain the full direction of the expenditure. 



193. What of other component states? 

194 What do we learn by the study and comparison of governments? 



PART 4. 



REVIEW OF GOVERNMENTS. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



BLACKBOARD EXERCISES. 



Natu] 



Governments. -J Origin or Basis. 
Object. 



Variations 

OF 

Form. 



f / Monarchical concession. 

Cause of ) 

( Popular will. 

( Monarchical. 

Democratic. 

Aristocratic. 

Bureaucratic. 



Extent. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 149 

' Legislative. 



Division 

OF 

Power. 



Vertical. 



Co-ordinate 
Powers. 



Executive. 
Judicial. 



f 



Supreme. 



j General. 

u • . 1 J f Federal. 

Horizontal, -j ^ 

Subordinate, j L^^^^* 
) State. 



Limitation 

OF 

Power. 



Law. 
Constitution. 



03 

w 
o 

Oh 
W 

g 
Q 

o 

I 

o 



Legislative or Law-ma- ( Sovereign decree, 
j^-j-jp. •< Constitution. 

( Legislative enactment. 



Judicial or Law-apply- j St 
ing. ( In 



Supreme Court, 
ferior Courts. 



Executive or Law-ad- 
ministering. 



Chief Magistrate or 
vSupreme Ruler. 
Administration Dep't. 



I50 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT, 

Chief Magistrate. 



Departments 

OF ^ 

Government 



( Elected. 
Legislature. J Hereditary. 

( Appointed. 



Constitution. 



States. 



Executive. 
^Judiciary. 

Purpose. 

Basis. 
Origin. 

Sovereign. 



Local, 
General. 



Restrictive. 
Definitive. 

Force. 

Popular consent. 

Popular vs^ill. 
Royal concession. 



j Suzerain. 
( Independent. 



( Tributary. 
Autonomous. J Colonial. 

) Component. 



Sovereign 
States. 



Republican Unions. 
Federations. -^ Empires. 

Bi-partite Kingdoms. 

Unified or In- j Republics, 
tegral States. ( Kingdoms. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 



151 



Federa- 
tions. 



" United States of America. 
Mexico. 

United States of Colombia. 
Republics. -j Venezuela. 

Argentine Confederation. 
Liberia. 
_ Switzerland. 

Empires. -{ Germany. 

Bipartite j Austro-Hungary. 
States. I Sweden-Norway. 



C/5 

o 

h 
< 

N 
K 

o 

< 

W 
ft 
W 



Federation or 
Bundes-staat 



All Existing Unions. 



Defunct organizations only, 

as — 
United States Confederation, 
Confederation or I 
Staatenbund. i Southern Confederacy, 



German Confederation, 
Swiss Confederation. 



152 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



C/3 

o 

w 
Q 

o 

I 

X 
m 

s 

< 

a. 
c/2 



Mexico. 



Colombia. 



Venezuela. 



Argentine 
Confederation. 



Founded, 1823. 
No. of States, 27. 
Present Constitution, 1857. 
Present Ruler — — — 

Founded, 1831. 
No. of States, 9. 
Present Ruler 

Founded, 1831. 
No. of States, 21. 
Present Const., 1864. 
Present Ruler 



Founded, 1853. 
No. of States, 14. 
Present Ruler 



Switzerland. 



Germany. 



Staatenbund from 1 308-1848. 

Bundesstaat, 1848. 
1 No. States or Cantons, 22. 
I Present Ruler 



Confederation, 18 15-1866. 
N. German Confed., 1886-71, 
Bundesstaat, 1871. 
No. of States, 25. 
Present Ruler 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 



'53 



Austria-Hun- 
gary. 



Sweden - 
Norway. 



Austrian 
Empire. 



Kinofdom of 



Founded 1276. 
Const, granted 

1863. 

No. States, 17. 
Present Ruler- 



United to Aus- 
tria, 1547. 



Hungary, j Const., 1S67. 



I 
i Union, 1814. 

( Present Ruler - 



Present Ruler- 



Republics. 



France. 
Chili. 
Peru. 
Bolivia. 
Ecuador. 
Guatemala. 
Honduras. 
Nicaragua. 
San Salvador. 
Costa Rica. 
Hayti. 

San Domingo. 
Paraguay. 
Uruguay. 
Andorra. 
San Marino. 
Orange Free 
State. 



154 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



Constitutional. 
Monarchies. 



T3 
<U 
53 

.S 

o 
O 

I 

W 

H 
<! 
H 

Q 






Despotisms. 



Great Britain. 

Belgium. 

Brazil. 

Portugal. 

Spa^n. 

Netherlands. 

Denmark. 

Italy. 

Greece. 

Servia. 

Roumania. 



Montenegro. 

Russia. 

Ottoman Empire. 

Persia. 

Morocco. 

China. 

Japan. 

Siam. 

Afghanistan. 



Minor or Semi-protect- 
ed States. 



f Hawaii. 
Tonga. 
1 Sarawak. 
^ Madagascar, 
j Abyssinia. 
I Zanzibar. 
1^ Borneo. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 



155 



in 
w 

H 
< 
H 

m 

w 
Q 



Tributary States. 



Colonial 
Dependencies. 



Barbarous 
Protected 

States. 



Egypt. 

Bulgaria. 

Tunis. 

Canada. 

Newfoundland. 

Cape Colony. 

New South Wales. 

Victoria. 

Queensland. 

Tasmania. 

New Zealand. 

Transvaal. 



Component 

States. 



States of the American Union. 

States of the German Empire. 
i 
Provincial States. 



156 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

CHAPTER XXIII. 



Civil 
Government (i) 



THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES COM- 
PARED WITH THOSE OF OTHER COUNTRIES. 

• 1 • / X i Senate. 
Legislative (2) | ^ouse of Rep's. 

Executive (3) President U. S. 

T J- ■ ^ / \ { Supreme Court. 

Judicial (4) I ^J^^.^^. c^^^j^_ 

(i) The above diagram is based on the federal government 
of the United States, and shows what we have styled the ver- 
tical division of its powers. The wisdom of this division is 
generally approved, and in some cases it is adhered to strictly 
as a vital principle. Thus the Massachusetts Bill of Rights 
says : " In the government of this commonwealth, the legis- 
lative department shall never exercise the executive and ju- 
dicial powers, or either of them; the executive shall never 
exercise the legislative and judicial powers,* or either of them; 
the judiciary shall never exercise the legislative and executive 
powers, or either of them ; to the end it may be a government 
of laws and not of men." 

It will be noted, however, that this division is not always 
followed, even in constitutional governments. In the Ameri- 
can republics and in other governments in which the constitu- 
tion is recognized as the creation of the people, there is an 
effort to prevent the executive from exercising the legislative 
power, beyond, of course, the usual limited veto. Where, as 
in the German states, for instance, the constitution is a grant 
from the crown, a degree of legislative power is reserved to the 
sovereign, who has usually also an absolute veto, as a check 
upon the legislature. Where, as in France and England, the 
legislative body has escaped from its old-time trammels, it 
usually, through its power over the cabinet of the executive, 
wields the greater part of the executive power. In such cases, 
too, the legislature assumes the supreme judicial power, 
becoming the highest court of appeal in many cases, and not 
being restricted, as in the United States, by any court's inter- 
pretation of the constitution. 

(2) As to the division of the legislature into two houses, we 
have already noted how generally that is made. The primary 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 157 

object of the division is to restrict the representatives of the 
people and secure a more careful consideration of the laws. 
Hence where the senate is chosen by the same constituents 
that elect the deputies, it is usually chosen in a different v. ay — 
as in France, for instance, through an electoral college. Or, 
occasion is taken to give some class a special representation; 
in the United States the individual states are so favored; in 
France, the municipalities; in England the aristocracy and the 
established church ; in the German governments, the chief 
land-holders, the chief tax-payers, the nobility, the church, the 
towns and the chief institutions of learning. 

(3) The chief magistrate of a country usually wields the ex- 
ecutive power, with the assistance of his heads of departments 
or secretaries of state. Where the ministry is " responsible," 
however, the chief magistrate is either pushed aside, or re- 
stricted, by "advisers" virtually chosen by the chamber of 
deputies. 

(4) The courts under all governments include superior and 
inferior courts as a matter of course, but where cases may be 
appealed from the highest court to parliament, or to the sov- 
ereign, that court can, of course, lay no claim to be called 
supreme. 

r> ^ .• » Apportionment (i) 

Kepresentation •< r\ ^-c 4.- £ i /^\ 
^ Qualification of voters (2) 



o 

in 
O 



Elected when (3) 
Election ^ « how (4) , ^ (^ 

" ^«''h"^'°"gJTofill vacancy 

Qualification of members (6) 

Sessions held (7) -! ^ ^^^? ? 

( J . , . .ox ( Exclusive 
Legislative (b) Concurrent 



Powers & j Investigation and impeachment (9) 
privileges 1, j House officers 

Elective (10) \ President in certain 
contingency 



158 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

(i) In our country representation in congress is based upon 
population, and, in most states, all citizens — if of the male sex 
and twenty-one years of age — are entitled to vote. Assuming 
that the purpose of voting is to find out the stronger party — 
the one most likely to win in an appeal to arms — this is the fair- 
est arrangement. But it must be noted that where a superior 
race, in point of military prowess, is joined with a weaker or 
inferior one, no such arrangement is thought of. In Canada 
and Australia, the British colonies are governed, by their own 
representatives, but in British India the English residents 
would not tolerate a popular government. Where, as in 
Europe, the governments have not reached a democratic basis 
for their representation, many diversities in apportionment re- 
main. The smaller municipalities, the rural districts influenced 
by the chief land-owners, and the universities, are the locali- 
ties usually favored. 

(2) In granting the suffrage the States of our Union have full 
control except so far as restricted by the 14th and 15th amend- 
ments. Some little difference therefore exists in the qualifica- 
tion of voters in the different states, but, generally speaking, 
all adult male citizens are voters unless disqualified as crimi- 
nals or paupers The states may, and sometimes do, demand 
an educational or property qualification, or they may make the 
right to vote depend on the payment of a certain sum as a 
property tax or poll tax. In the Spanish American republics, 
Liberia, France and Switzerland, manhood suffrage is the 
rule, as it is also in the choice of the single chamber of Greece. 
In Austria, Italy, Roumania and Norway, voters must have 
reached their twenty-fifth year, and in Denmark no one under 
thirty is considered qualified for the suffrage. Property or 
tax-paymg qualifications are demanded in Belgium, England, 
Italy, Holland, Portugal, Spain, Servia, Sweden and Norway, 
and many of the Gerinan states. 

(3) Election of representatives must be held every second 
year, though election day need not be the same in all the states. 
In countries where the term of offfce is fixed, the date of elec- 
tion is approximately set, but where the chief magistrate has 
power to dissolve the legislature, it is usually provided that a 
general election be held within a fixed period after dissolution. 

(4) Elections are in this country held by popular suffrage 
under the secrecy of the ballot, so that we are apt to forget that 
the ballot is a modern invention, still on trial in England. 
The election, too, is sometimes complicated by the device of 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 159 

the electoral college, employed in what are called indirect elec- 
tions. Custom has made our presidential election virtually a 
direct expression of the people s will, since electors always vote 
for their party candidates, but in other countries this is not the 
case. Where electors are numerous, vote in secret or by bal- 
lot, or where they are ex officio electors (as the members of the 
legislature are in selecting a senator), they still exercise full 
power of choice. 

Second elections are more or less a mystery to us, as we are 
accustomed to regard a popular election as final, whether the 
successful candidate receives a majority of the votes cast or 
only a plurality. In some cases, too, a second ballot may be 
called for because the candidate has not received a majority of 
.the registered vote, a light vote only having been cast. 

(5) (Jur two years' term for representatives in congress is 
short compared with that established in other countries, as will 
be seen by the following data: Great Britain elects for 7 
years; Austria for 6; Spain and Italy and Canada for 5; Bel- 
gium, France, Greece, Holland, Portugal, Roumania, Argen- 
tine Confederation and Brazil for 4; Hungary, Denmark, Ger- 
many, Servia, Sweden and Norway, Switzerland and Chili for 
3; and Mexico and some minor states for 2 years. 

Vacancies are generally filled by special election,, but some- 
times, as in this country, by executive appointment. 

(6) All restriction placed" upon the choice of the people is at 
variance with the principles of democracy, yet we have several 
restrictions imposed on us. We can elect no representative 
under twenty-five years of age, nor any one resident in some 
other state, nor one who has not been for seven years a citizen 
of the United States. We are also restrained by'the disability 
imposed by the 14th amendment, where such disability has not 
been removed by act of congress. Further, after we have 
selected an eligible representative, he may be excluded by the 
arbitrary decision of his fellow members. In this regard, 
however, we are not worse off than the citizens of other states, 
unless it be the Swiss, who can elect any voter — any man over 
twenty years of age, provided he is " not a clergyman," or the 
English, who can elect any voter residing in any part of the 
kingdom. We have the advantage of the English voter in the 
fact that as our government pays members of its congress, we 
may vote for a poor man without being concerned as to his 
means of support. The restriction as to age is imposed by 
European governments, Belgium, Denmark and Spain de- 



i6o CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



manding 25 years; Italy, Roumania and Norway 30 years, and 
Sweden 35 years. Most of these states not only do not pay 
members, but even demand that they be possessed of an income 
from property or from one of the learned professions. 

In republics, the congress or parliament has a recognized 
right to assemble according to the law or agreement made by 
itself or by some previous congress, or when convened by the 
chief magistrate or some executive officer, or, indeed, inform- 
ally of its own will, in the absence of a set time. In England, 
however, and in other monarchies, parliament must await the 
summons of the crown. 

(8) The federal house of representatives has not only an 
equal voice with the senate in the passage of laws, but it has 
sole power to originate bills tor raising revenue. A similar 
provision is made by the law of En _ land, which gives the 
people's representatives the right to originate all bills regarding 
the levying of taxes or expenditure of revenue. In Belgium 
the deputies have similar rights, and also the initiative in 
measures relating to the contingent of the army. In Denmark the 
government may frame the revenue laws, but the lower house 
must have the first vote on them. At present there is a strug- 
gle between the folkething and the crown, and no appropriation 
bills can be passed. The King has decreed an " extraordinary 
budget," claiming the right to do so, and being supported in his 
claim by the upper house of parliament. Financial laws 
must first be presented to and voted on by the chamber of 
deputies, in France, Italy, the Netherlands and Portugal. In 
Germany the right belongs to the upper house, and in Spain 
to both houses. 

(9) The right to investigate belongs to all law-making bodies. 
The exclusive right to impeach is another matter, and it was 
vested in the house, we may presume, because the senate was to 
constitute the court that tried the case. Generally speaking, 
the right to impeach is acknowledged, but it is expressly denied 
the German Reichstag. 

(10) The right to select its own officers belongs to all cham- 
bers of deputies. The right to settle a presidential dispute by 
selecting one of the candidates, was given to our federal house 
as the proper recipient of such a trust — supposing a new elec- 
tion to be inadvisable. 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. i6i 

f Elected members. 

How composed (I) ^'Y^^'^^'^.^^^T u ^'^ 
^ ^ ^ I Appointed " 

(^Ex officio " 

^ By wliom (4) 

Election (3) J ^^'^^" '-'"'^ '^""' 

Term ^>":?,':^ 
I ( i o hll vacancy 

r Age 
Qualifications (5) -j Citizenship 

( Official disencumbrance (6) 

r Legislative (7) 

-D Executive 

Powers ^ 1^1 ^- ,o\ 

j Elective (b) 

I Judicial 

(i) The senate of the United States is composed of two sen- 
ators from each state, elected for a term of six years by the 
state legislatures. As the purpose of the senate is to act as a 
check upon the popular will, rather than to represent the 
people, it was natural that the framers of the constitution 
should seek some mode of selection other than popular choice. 
In the state governments of our Union and the South Ameri- 
can republics, where the senator differs from the representa- 
tive (in most cases) simply by being the choice of a larger 
constituency, the upper house is likely to be merelv a higher 
grade of the lower one A more rational process of obtaining 
the same result is that in vogue in Norway, where the senate 
is composed of one-fourth of the storthing — differentiated, as it 
were, by natural selection or by the mysterious "deaconing" 
process, which brings the big apples to the top of the basket — 
the classification taking place after the storthing has assem- 
bled. 

(2) In this country senators are elected— as they are in all re- 
publics — but in the European monarchies we find antiquated 
types — senators, or peers, by hereditary right, or by virtue of 



i62 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

office. Since the parliament was originally an assembly of 
chieftains to oppose or control the king, it naturally contained 
the chief ecclesiastical functionaries, admitted by virtue of their 
office, and also the heads of clans, who though perhaps not 
distinguished in themselves, were yet powerful through their 
hereditary claims on the allegiance of their clans. Hence even 
at this late day, the peer often, as John Bright puts it, "enters 
the hall of legislation through the vault of some dead an- 
cestor," or is received because he had been selected for some 
high ecclesiastical office — a very different position from that of 
a lawmaker. The representative peers, whether selected, as in 
Scotland, by the nobility, or, as in some European states, by the 
universities, occupy a very different position ; they represent a 
class, and are held responsible for their action by that class. 
The responsibility is an essential point; where peers are ap- 
pointed for life — whether by the vote of the nobility (as in Ire- 
land) or by the vote of the people (as in Brazil) or by the simple 
mandate of the king, as in a half dozen different states, they 
lose a large share of their representative character. The pro- 
posal recently made in this country to give ex-presidents a 
senatorial position for life, is open to the same objection. The 
recent change in the French constitution paved the way for 
the gradual abolition of life senatorships in that country; as all 
vacancies by death or resignation wil\ hereafter be filled for 
nine years only. 

(3) As to the specific composition of the upper house in the 
different European monarchies, it may be noted that at the be- 
ginning of 18S5 the Austrian Herrenhaus contained 66 heredi- 
tary, 17 ex-officio, and 105 life peers, and the Hungarian house 
of magnates, 699 hereditary and 50 ex-officio peers, as well as 
two elected to represent the province of Croatia. (A 
reform bill, reducing the number of hereditary peerages, was 
introduced during the year.) The Belgian senate contained 69 
members — one-half the number of the house of deputies — 
elected for 8 years by the direct vote of the people. The Dan- 
ish Landsthing contained 12 life meml)ers and 54 eight-year 
members chosen by an indirect election favoring the chief tax- 
payers. The French senate originally had 75 life senatorships 
— two vacancies have occurred since the constitutional amend- 
ment of last August, reducing this class to 73 and raising to 
227 the number of the senators chosen for nine years by indi- 
rect election. The German Bundesrath contained 62 member- 
ships, apportioned among the several states according to their 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 163 

importance. The British house of lords contained 442 heredi- 
tary, and 26 ex-officio peers, as well as 28 Irish peers elected for 
life and 16 Scotcli peers elected for the duration of parliament. 
The Italian senate consisted of the princes of the royal house 
who are of age, and an unlimited number of members ap- 
pointed for life by the king. The Netherlands senate contained 
39 members elected for nine years by the provincial states " from 
among the most highly assessed inhabitants of the provinces." 
The Portuguese house of peers contained 150 members ap- 
pointed for life by the crown. Of the Spanish senate, one- 
half— 180 — were either hereditary ex-officio or life peers by 
royal grant, and the others were elected by the " corporations 
of state, i. e., communes, churches, universities, etc. The 
Roumanian senate had 120 members elected for 8 years; that 
of Sweden is elected for a term of nine years. The time and 
manner of electing United States senators is fixed by act of 
congress of July 26, 1866. The voting begins the second Tues- 
day after organization, when each house names, viva voce, its 
choice for senators. If the choice of the two houses voting 
separately falls upon the same man, he is of course elected. If 
the houses disagree they unite and form a joint assembly, and 
the person receiving a majority vote of this assembly is de- 
clared elected. This, however, is mere regulation, the point 
being to secure the choice of the majority of the assembly. 

(4) We have noted above, the differences in the constituencies 
of senators and in the length of their terms. The mode of 
election is much the same, except in Brazil, where, it may be 
noted, the constituents elect three senatorial candidates from 
whom the emperor selects one. 

(5) The qualifications demanded of elected or appointed sen- 
ators are usually those of advanced age and citizenship and in 
most countries a profession or independent income from prop- 
erty. In Italy it is demanded that a senator shall have filled a 
high office or be prominent in some worthy profession, or that 
he should pay a high rate of taxes. 

(6) The prohibition against a senator's holding a govern- 
ment position is not usual. Many persons base their claims to 
a seat in the upper house on their hold ng an office under the 
government, and a still greater number of the hereditary peers 
depend on official salaries for their support. Direct payment 
of members of the upper house is not customary in monarchies. 

(7) Theoretically, '.the senate has equal powers with the house 
in lawmaking, exc'ept in originating finance bills, but in some 



164 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



cases, as in England, for instance, precedent requires tiie upper 
house to yield if the house of commons is persistent in urging 
the passage of a bill. Executive duties are given to our federal 
senate in order that it may act as a check upon the president. 
In the German Reichstag and the German "free states" the 
upper house is a ministerial as well as a legislative body, and 
has full charge of the executive department. 

(8) The United States senate is given power to elect the vice- 
president in case the electoral college fails to elect one — justas 
it is made the high court for the trial of impeachment cases, 
because it seems most fit to be trusted v/ith those powers and 
not because they pertain to a lawmaking body. 

SPHERE OF FEDERAL ACTION. (l) 






Taxation 



Raise money (2)^ 



j Dire( 
I Indir 



■ect 
ect 



Borrowing- 
Pay debts 



Bonds 

Legal tender 
( Legal claims 
( Moral claims 
Expend money (3)^ 

Provide for general 
welfare 
Directly ) Commerce, coinage, 

or I weights 

Indirectly \ and measures 
r Naturalization 

-r, -11 Bankruptcy 

Provide laws ] ^ •14. ^ 4. ^. 
r . -i Copyrights and patents 

1 Government of territory 

Admission of new states 



Regulate 



Punish 



Offenses against the Nation 



International offenses 
Establish ( PostofRces, etc. 

and 4 Courts at law 
Maintain f Army and navv 



o 
U 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 165 

POWERS INHERENT IN STATE GOVERNMENT. 



Subject to ) Ordinary legislation 

act of V where not 



Congress ) prohibited by U. S. Constitution 



i 



6 



Not subject C All powers 

to acts } not granted to congress or pro- 
of Congress / hibited to states. 



(i) The division of power between general and local author- 
ities exists in all states, but in federations the division is more 
marked. The Austro- Hungarian Delegations has its power 
limited to "foreign ai^airs and war." The German parlia- 
ment, though by no means so restricted, is kept to the consid- 
eration of imperial matters only. The same is true of the 
federal republics. In unified states, the only check upon the 
intermeddling of the general government in local affairs is 
custom or the charter which may have been granted to the 
local corporation. 

(2) There is no legal restriction to prevent a sovereign 
state's raising any amount of money. Minor states — some of 
the stntes of our Union, and certain dependencies, as, for in- 
stance, Egypt, are bound either by self imposed laws or en- 
gagements with foreign powers. 

(3) Strictly speaking, congress has no constitution;>l right to 
give away money, though it is often done, congress being sole 
judge of the moral claim. No such restriction is placed upon 
any other sovereign state. 

[For more definite information concerning the details of our 
federal government, the student is referred to the excellent 
w:orks of Calvin Townsend and A. W. Young.] 

ThQ greatest difference in governments is in regard to the 



i66 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



personal rights guaranteed to citizens in dealing with the civil 
authority. The peculiarities of the different states in that re- 
gard are so manifold, indeed, that it would take a book to de- 
scribe them. We shall not attempt any such description here, 
since it scarcely belongs to a study of the forms of govern- 
ment, but rather to a consideration of customs and methods 
of administration. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



RULERS OF THE WORLD. 

FEDERATIONS. 

NAME OF COUNTRY. NAME OF RULER. DATE OF ACCESS'n. '^q^^°^ 

Argentine Republic, D. Julia A. Roca. Oct. 12, 18S0, 6 yrs. 

Austria-Hungary, Franz Josef I, Dec. 2,1848, 

Colombia, Rafael Nunez, April i, 1S84, 2 " 

Germany, William I, Jan. 18, 1871, 

Liberia, H. R. W. Johnson, Jan. 7, 1884, 2 " 

Mexico, Porfirio Diaz, Dec. i, 1884, 4 " 

Switzerland, Charles Schenck, Jan. i, 1885, i " 

Sweden & Norway, Oscar II, Sept. 18, 1872, 

United States, Grover Cleveland, March 4, 1885, 4 " 

Venezuela, Joaquin Crespo, April, — , 1884, 2 " 

UNIFIED OR INTEGRAL STATES. 
I. REPUBLICS 

Bolivia, Gregorio Pacheco, Dec. 3, 1884, 4 yrs. 

Chili, D. Santa Maria, Sept. 18,1881,5 " 

Costa Rica, P. Fernandez, Aug. 10, 1882, 4 " 

Ecuador, Senor Caamano, Feb. 10, 1884, 4 " 

France, P. Jules Grevy, Jan. 30, 1879, 7 " 

Guatemala, Senor Sirrivaldy, April — , 1885, 

Hayti, Gen. Salomon, Oct. 23, 1879, 4 " 

Honduras, Luis Bogran, Nov. — , 18S3, 4 " 

Nicaragua, Adam Cardenas, Jan. — , 1883, 4 " 
Orange Free State, Sir John 11. Brand, Dec. — , 1883, 4 " 

Paraguay, B. Caballero, May — , 1881, 4 " 

Peru, Miguel Iglesias, Oct. 20, 1883, 4 " 

San T)omingo, Francisco Bellini, July — , 1884, 4 " 

San Salvador, Gen. Figuerda, April — , 1885, 4 " 

Uruguay, Maximo Santos, Mar. i, 1882, 4 " 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 



167 



CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHIES. 



NAME OF COUNTRY. 


NAME OF KULEK. 


DATE OF ACCESS'N. 


Belgium, 


Leopold II, 


Dec. 


10, 


1865. 


Brazil, 


Dom Pedro II, 


April 


7, 


1831. 


Den in ark, 


Christian IX, 


Nov. 


15, 


1863. 


Great Britain, 


Victoria, 


June 


20, 


1837. 


Greece, 


Georgios I, 


Nov. 


— , 


1863. 


Holland, 


William III, 


Mar. 


i7> 


1S49. 


Italy, 


Umber to I, 


Jan. 


9' 


1878. 


Portugal, 


Luis I, 


Nov. 


1 1, 


1861. 


Rou mania, 


Carol I, 


May 


22 


1866. 


Servia, 


Milan I, 


Aug. 


--J 


1872. 


Spain, 


Alphonso XII, 

3. DESPOTISMS. 


Jan. 


9> 


1879. 


China, 


Tsaiteen, 


Ian. 


22, 


1875- 


Japan, 


Mutsu Hito, 


Jan. 


22, 


1867. 


Montenegro, 


Nicholas I, 


Aug. 


M' 


i860. 


Morocco, 


Muley- Hassan, 


Sept. 


17. 


i873- 


Persia, 


Nassr-ed-Din, 


Sept. 


10, 


18-18. 


Russia, 


Alexander III, 


Mar. 


i3» 


18S1. 


Siam, 


Chulalon Koru I, 


Oct. 


I, 


1868. 


Turkey, 


Abdul Hamid II, 

MINOR STATES. 


Aug. 


31. 


1S76. 


Hawaii, 


Kalakaua I, 


Feb. 


12, 


1S74. 


Tonga, 


George, 


. . 






Sarawak, 


SirChas.J. Brooke 


^^) 


"1868. 


Madagascar, 


Ranavulona III, 


July 


13, 


1883. 


Abyssinia, 


Johannes II, 




) 


1872. 


Zanzibar, 


Bargash bin Said, 


Oct. 


7» 


1870. 


Borneo, 


Abdul Mumein, 









DEPENDENT AND COMPONENT STATES. 

Tunis, Bey Sidi Ali, Oct. 28, 1882. 

Egyptj Mohamed Tewfik, June 26, 1879. 

Bulgaria, Alexander I, April 29, 1879. 

Transvaal, S. J. Paul Kruger, April — , 1S83, 5 yrs. 

AUTONOMOUS COLONIAL DEPENDENCIES. 

Domin'n of Canada, Marqof Lansdoune Aug. 18, 1883. 

Newfoundland, Sir John H. Glover, 

Natal, Sir Henry Bulwer, Jan. — , 1882. 



i68 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



NAME OF COUNTRY. 


NAME OF RULER. 


DATE OF ACCESS'N 


Cape Colony, 


Sir H. G. Robins'n 


, Dec. 


"j 


1880. 


New South Wales, 


Lord Loftus, 


May 


3- 


1879. 


Victoria, 


Sir Henry Loch, 


April 


lO, 


1884. 


So. Australia, 


Sir Wm. Robins'n 


Nov. 


— 


1882. 


Queensland, 


Sir A. Musgrave, 


April 


— ^ 


1883. 


Tasmania, 


Sir G. Strahan, 


Aug. 





ib8o. 


New Zealand, 


Sir Wm. Jervois, 


Nov. 


— ,' 


1882. 


STATES OF 


THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 


Bavaria, 


Ludwig II, 


Mar. 


lO, 


1864. 


Wurttemburg, 


Karl I, 


June 


25, 


1864. 


Saxony, 


Albert I, 


Oct. 


29> 


1873- 


Baden, 


Friedrich I, 


April 


24, 


1852. 


Mecklen'g-Schwerir 


Friedrich Franz III April 


i5> 


1883. 


Hesse, 


Ludwig IV, 


June 


i3> 


1877. 


Oldenburg, 


Peter I, 


Feb. 


27) 


1853- 


Saxe-Weimar, 


Karl Alexander, 


July 


8, 


1853. 


Mecklenb'g-Strel'tz, 


Friedr'hWilhelm] 


[ Sept. 


6, 


i860. 


Brunswick, 


Vacancy, 
Georg II, 








Saxe-Meiningen, 


Sept." 


20, 


"i'866. 


Anhalt, 


Friedrich, 


May 


22, 


1871. 


Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 


Ernst II, 


Jan. 


29, 


1844. 


Saxe-Altenburg, 


Ernst, 


'Aug. 


3. 


1853- 


Waldeck, 


Georg Victor, 


May 


H> 


1845. 


Lippe, 


Waidemar, 


Dec. 


10. 


1875. 


Schwarzb'g-Rud'adt 


, Georg, 


Nov. 


26, 


1869. 


S ch warzb'g-Son'sen 


Karl II. 


July 


17. 


1880. 


Reuss-Schleig, 


Heinrich XIV, 


July 


10, 


1867. 


Schaumb g-Lippe, 


Adolf, 


No. 


21, 


i860. 


Reuss-Greiz, 


Heinrich XXII, 


Nov. 


8, 


1859. 



ractical Etiquette. 

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HOWTOISU^S.HISTORY 

BY THE BMACE SYSTEM. 



A Book for Teacher S PupiU 

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Co. Supt. of Schools, Macon Co., Ill, 



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TVirO NE W E XTRAS, 

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SEPTEMBER EXTRAS. 

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Extra No. 1. For September, 1882.— Contains questions and an- 
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